Poisonous and Toxic Plants

Plants Poisonous to Cats
Almond (Pits of)
Aloe Vera
Alocasia
Amaryllis
Apple (seeds)
Apple Leaf Croton
Apricot (Pits of)
Arrowgrass
Asparagus Fern
Autumn Crocus
Avacado (fuit and pit)
Azalea
Baby’s Breath
Baneberry
Bayonet
Beargrass
Beech
Belladonna
Bird of Paradise
Bittersweet
Black-eyed Susan
Black Locust
Bleeding Heart
Bloodroot
Bluebonnet
Box
Boxwood
Branching Ivy
Buckeyes
Buddist Pine
Burning Bush
Buttercup
Cactus, Candelabra
Caladium
Calla Lily
Castor Bean
Ceriman
Charming Dieffenbachia
Cherry (pits, seeds & wilting leaves)
Cherry, most wild varieties
Cherry, ground
Cherry, Laurel
Chinaberry
Chinese Evergreen
Christmas Rose
Chrysanthemum
Cineria
Clematis
Cordatum
Coriaria
Cornflower
Corn Plant
Cornstalk Plant
Croton
Corydalis
Crocus, Autumn
Crown of Thorns
Cuban Laurel
Cutleaf Philodendron
Cycads
Cyclamen
Daffodil
Daphne
Datura
Deadly Nightshade
Death Camas
Devil’s Ivy
Delphinium
Decentrea
Dieffenbachia
Dracaena Palm
Dragon Tree
Dumb Cane
Easter Lily *
Eggplant
Elaine
Elderberry
Elephant Ear
Emerald Feather
English Ivy
Eucalyptus
Euonymus
Evergreen
Ferns
Fiddle-leaf fig
Florida Beauty
Flax
Four O’Clock
Foxglove
Fruit Salad Plant
Geranium
German Ivy
Giant Dumb Cane
Glacier IvyGolden Chain
Gold Dieffenbachia
Gold Dust Dracaena
Golden Glow
Golden Pothos
Gopher Purge
Hahn’s Self-Branching Ivy
Heartland Philodendron
Hellebore
Hemlock, Poison
Hemlock, Water
Henbane
Holly
Honeysuckle
Horsebeans
Horsebrush
Horse Chestnuts
Hurricane Plant
Hyacinth
Hydrangea
Indian Rubber Plant
Indian Tobacco
Iris
Iris Ivy
Jack in the Pulpit
Janet Craig Dracaena
Japanese Show Lily *
Java Beans
Jessamine
Jerusalem Cherry
Jimson Weed
Jonquil
Jungle Trumpets
Kalanchoe
Lacy Tree Philodendron
Lantana
Larkspur
Laurel
Lily
Lily Spider
Lily of the Valley
Locoweed
Lupine
Madagascar Dragon Tree
Marble Queen
Marigold
Marijuana
Mescal Bean
Mexican Breadfruit
Miniature Croton
Mistletoe
Mock Orange
Monkshood
Moonseed
Morning Glory
Mother-in Law’s Tongue
Morning Glory
Mountain Laurel
Mushrooms
Narcissus
Needlepoint Ivy
Nephytis
Nightshade
Oleander
Onion
Oriental Lily *
Peace Lily
Peach (pits and wilting leaves)
Pencil Cactus
Peony
Periwinkle
Philodendron
Pimpernel
Plumosa Fern
Poinciana
Poinsettia (low toxicity)
Poison Hemlock
Poison Ivy
Poison Oak
Pokeweed
Poppy
Potato
Pothos
Precatory Bean
Primrose
Privet, Common
Red Emerald
Red Princess
Red-Margined Dracaena
Rhododendron
Rhubarb
Ribbon Plant
Rosemary Pea
Rubber Plant
Saddle Leaf Philodendron
Sago Palm
Satin Pothos
Schefflera
Scotch Broom
Silver Pothos
Skunk Cabbage
Snowdrops
Snow on the Mountain
Spotted Dumb Cane
Staggerweed
Star of Bethlehem
String of Pearls
Striped Dracaena
Sweetheart Ivy
Sweetpea
Swiss Cheese plant
Tansy Mustard
Taro Vine
Tiger Lily *
Tobacco
Tomato Plant (green fruit, stem and leaves)
Tree Philodendron
Tropic Snow Dieffenbachia
Tulip
Tung Tree
Virginia Creeper
Water Hemlock
Weeping Fig
Wild Call
Wisteria
Yews
Japanese Yew
English Yew
Western Yew
American Yew

This beachfront home is located on one of the most exclusive areas along the New Jersey shore, located in Long Beach Township. Each room offers ocean views, while the interior features a cantilevered design that accentuates the sunny and sandy feel of the area. The home features a screened grill deck, in-deck pool and spa, cedar outdoor showers, a 3-floor elevator, remote controlled custom window treatments and a specially designed sound system wired throughout the house.

Stuart, Florida
Esti Kadosh, Coldwell Banker Residential
Stuart, Florida
List price: $6.95 million
Living area: 11,477 sqft
Bedrooms: 5
Bathrooms: 7.5

Situated on the banks of the St. Lucie river in Stuart, Florida, this custom-built home features a porte-cochere with lit glass columns leading into a sky-domed rotunda. The home’s “great room” features waterfront views that overlook tropical scenery. The home includes a full gym and sauna, while each bedroom has its own private balcony. The property features a guest house, and 8 car garage, a private tennis court and a state-of-the-art dock that can accomodate up to a 150′ motor yacht.

Laguna Beach, Calif.
Rod Daley,
Coldwell Banker of Orange County, Calif.
Laguna Beach, California
List price: $31.5 million
Living area: N/A
Bedrooms: 5
Bathrooms: 8

Just from looking at this home located in the Irvine Cove section of Laguna Beach, California, one can see why it is one of the most impressive. It features 158 feet of ocean frontage and rests on Irvine Cove’s “Abalone Point.” The home also has vaulted redwood ceilings, a formal dining room with seating for 16, exercise room, wine room and a professional art gallery.

Kaanapali, Hawaii
Island Sotheby’s International Realty
Kaanapali, Hawaii
List price: $23.8 million
Living area: 11,076 sqft
Bedrooms: 8
Bathrooms: 9.5

Located on western shore of Maui, this home is situated next to the Alii Kahekili Nui Ahumonu Beach Park in a very secluded part of the island. The home offers pristine sunset views that are characteristic of Hawaii’s coastlines. The home also features an oceanfront pool, jacuzzi, yoga pavilion and full exercise room.

the Manor
Cedric Choi, Choi International
Honolulu, Hawaii
List price: $29 million
Living area: 18,388 sqft
Bedrooms: 9
Bathrooms: 9.5

The most impressive beach home currently on the market is a massive beachfront mansion on the Hawaiian island of Oahu. Located on Honolulu’s most prestigious street, Kahala Avenue, the property spans 1.4 acres and has 125 feet of beach frontage. The main home has 9 bedrooms, but the property also has two 4-bedroom guest houses that are placed along professionally manicured grounds. The main home includes a 300-bottle wine room, a covered oceanfront patio, outdoor bar, a seaside dining pavilion, several swimming and wading pools and parking for as many as 25 cars.

The home is also located near the Waialae Country Club, which is host to the PGA Sony Open Tournament, as well as the world-famous Waikiki beach and tourist area.

http://realestate.yahoo.com/promo/americas-coolest-beach-homes-2010

2. Bicycle helmets: Usually, a crash would only crush the foam inside the helmet casing, so the damage to the helmet may not be visible. However, since helmets are meant to protect against one accident only, buying new would be a safer bet.

3. Tires: Sometimes it’s hard to tell if used tires were once part of a totaled wreck. If they have been in an accident, they’re bound to be unstable and unreliable. Putting your safety at risk for the sake of saving a few bucks just doesn’t add up.

4. Laptops: Because of their portability, laptops are prone to all sorts of abuse and problems. When you buy a used laptop, unless it’s refurbished, you have no idea what it’s been through or when important parts will die on you. You also don’t get the warranties and tech support that come with buying new.

5. Software: Most software comes with a serial number that you register with the company when you activate the software on your computer. If the serial number on your use software has already been registered, you can’t use it again.

6. Camera lenses: An SLR camera lens is the most expensive part of a camera. It also directly affects the quality of your images. Any damage to the lens, however slight, will show up in your photos.

7. Photo light bulbs: Not the ordinary light bulbs you use at home. We’re talking about the light bulbs used with photography equipment. They’re relatively expensive, but their life span is short enough that you likely won’t get much use out of them if you buy second-hand.

8. Swimsuits and undergarments: This is probably a no-brainer, but it needs to be said: Do not, do not, do not buy used swimsuits or undergarments. They’re worn too close to the body to consider buying used.

9. Shoes: If you get used footwear, it’s likely they’re already molded to the last owner’s feet. Poor-fitting shoes are not only uncomfortable but can cause all sorts of health problems, as well.

10. Makeup: A good thing to remember about used makeup is that it’s a breeding ground for bacteria and a number of contagious diseases. The great deal you found may come with pink eye and cold sores. Instead of buying used, consider making your own beauty products or skip makeup altogether.

Inspired by: http://shopping.yahoo.com/articles/yshoppingarticles/383/20-things-you-should-never-buy-used/

Alabama Montgomery
Alaska Juneau
Arizona Phoenix
Arkansas Little Rock
California Sacramento
Colorado Denver
Connecticut Hartford
Delaware Dover
Florida Tallahassee
Georgia Atlanta
Hawaii Honolulu
Idaho Boise
Illinois Springfield
Indiana Indianapolis
Iowa Des Moines
Kansas Topeka
Kentucky Frankfort
Louisiana Baton Rouge
Maine Augusta
Maryland Annapolis
Massachusetts Boston
Michigan Lansing
Minnesota St. Paul
Mississippi Jackson
Missouri Jefferson City
Montana Helena
Nebraska Lincoln
Nevada Carson City
New Hampshire Concord
New Jersey Trenton
New Mexico Santa Fe
New York Albany
North Carolina Raleigh
North Dakota Bismarck
Ohio Columbus
Oklahoma Oklahoma City
Oregon Salem
Pennsylvania Harrisburg
Rhode Island Providence
South Carolina Columbia
South Dakota Pierre
Tennessee Nashville
Texas Austin
Utah Salt Lake City
Vermont Montpelier
Virginia Richmond
Washington Olympia
West Virginia Charleston
Wisconsin Madison
Wyoming Cheyenne

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American Samoa
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Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
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Guam
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
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Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Northern Marianas Islands
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Puerto Rico
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
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Vermont
Virginia
Virgin Islands
Washington
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Wisconsin
Wyoming

History

Eclipsys was founded in 1995 by Harvey Wilson, who remained with the company until 2002. In 2008, the company acquired physician practice management software company MediNotes.[1] The company restructured in 2006, and Philip Pead became chief executive officer in 2009.[2] In 2010, Eclipsys announced a strategic partnership with Microsoft, in which the companies will share technology and promote healthcare information technology interoperability.[3]

Type Public (NASDAQ: ECLP)

Industry healthcare information technology

Founded 1995

Headquarters Atlanta, Georgia

Key people
Philip Pead, chief executive officer
Gene Fife,Chairman

Products
electronic medical records
computerized physician order entry

Revenue $519.18 million (2009)

Operating income $11.98 million (2009)

Net income $2.71 million (2009)

Total assets $697.06 million (2009)

Total equity $435072 million (2009)

Employees 2,800

Website eclipsys.com

On the shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep,
Where the foe’s haughty host in dread silence reposes,
What is that which the breeze, o’er the towering steep,
As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning’s first beam,
In full glory reflected now shines in the stream:
‘Tis the star-spangled banner! Oh long may it wave
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave!

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore
That the havoc of war and the battle’s confusion,
A home and a country should leave us no more!
Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps’ pollution.
No refuge could save the hireling and slave
From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave!

Oh! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved home and the war’s desolation!
Blest with victory and peace, may the heav’n rescued land
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation.
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just,
And this be our motto: “In God is our trust.”
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O’er the land of the free and the home of the brave!

By definition, a perfect game is both a no-hitter and a shutout. Since the pitcher cannot control whether or not his teammates commit any errors, the pitcher must be backed up by solid fielding to pitch a perfect game. An error that does not allow a baserunner, such as a misplayed foul ball, does not spoil a perfect game. Weather-shortened contests in which a team has no baserunners and games in which a team reaches first base only in extra innings do not qualify as official perfect games under the present definition. The first confirmed use of the term “perfect game” was in 1908; the current official definition of the term was formalized in 1991. Although it is possible for multiple pitchers to combine for a perfect game (as has happened nine times at the major league level for a no-hitter), to date, every major league perfect game has been thrown by a single pitcher.[3]

History
Lee Richmond, pitcher of the first perfect game in major league history

Over the 135 years of Major League Baseball history, there have been only 20 official perfect games by the current definition. For comparison, more people have orbited the moon than have pitched a Major League Baseball perfect game. No pitcher has ever thrown more than one. The perfect game thrown by Don Larsen in game 5 of the 1956 World Series is the only postseason no-hitter in major league history. The first two major league perfect games, and the only two of the premodern era, were thrown in 1880, five days apart. The two most recent perfect games were thrown May 9 and May 29, 2010, just 20 days apart. By contrast, there have been spans of 23 and 33 consecutive seasons in which not a single perfect game was thrown.

The first to accomplish the feat in 1880 was Lee Richmond, a left-handed pitcher for the Worcester Ruby Legs. He played professional baseball for six years and pitched full-time for only three, finishing with a losing record. The second perfect game was thrown by John Montgomery Ward for the Providence Grays. Ward, who made the transition from excellent pitcher to excellent position player, went on to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.

During baseball’s modern era, defined by Major League Baseball as beginning in 1900, 18 more pitchers have thrown perfect games. Most of the modern-era players to have thrown perfect games were accomplished major league pitchers. Five are members of the Baseball Hall of Fame: Cy Young, Addie Joss, Jim Bunning, Sandy Koufax, and Catfish Hunter. A sixth, Randy Johnson, is a five-time Cy Young Award winner considered certain to be voted into the Hall of Fame when eligible. David Cone and Roy Halladay each won a Cy Young Award; Cone was named to five All-Star teams, and Halladay has been on six through 2009. Three other perfect-game throwers, Dennis Martínez, Kenny Rogers, and David Wells, each won over 200 major league games. Mark Buerhle has been an All-Star four times in his ten major league seasons through 2009. For a few the perfect game was the highlight of an otherwise unremarkable career. Mike Witt and Tom Browning were solid major league pitchers; each finished in the top ten in Cy Young voting once. Larsen, Charlie Robertson, and Len Barker were journeyman pitchers; each finished his major-league career with a losing record. Dallas Braden had a losing career record when he threw a perfect game in 2010, his fourth major league season.

The term perfect game is at least as old as 1908. I. E. Sanborn’s report for the Chicago Tribune about Joss’s performance against the White Sox calls it, “an absolutely perfect game, without run, without hit, and without letting an opponent reach first base by hook or crook, on hit, walk, or error, in nine innings.”[4] Several sources have claimed (erroneously) that the first recorded usage of the term “perfect game” was by Ernest J. Lanigan in his Baseball Cyclopedia, made in reference to Robertson’s 1922 game.[5] The Chicago Tribune came close to the term in describing Richmond’s game in 1880: “Richmond was most effectively supported, every position on the home nine being played to perfection.”[6] Similarly, in writing up Ward’s perfect game, the New York Clipper described the “perfect play” of Providence’s defense.[7]

Major League Baseball perfect games

19th century

Lee Richmond

Scorecard for Richmond’s perfect game: “R-A” notation in fifth inning represents the 9–3 putout

Richmond was pitching in his first full season in the big leagues after appearing in one game in 1879. He was apparently considered a good hitter, as he batted second in the lineup. His perfect game featured an unusual 9–3 putout, with Worcester right fielder Lon Knight throwing out Cleveland’s Bill Phillips at first.[9] The play came on one of three balls Cleveland hit out of the infield.[10] Three outs were recorded on “foul bounds”: balls caught after bouncing once in foul territory (the foul bound rule was eliminated three years later). A monument marks the site of the Worcester Agricultural Fairgrounds where the game took place, now part of the campus of Becker College.[11] The feat was recognized as unusual: a newspaper report described it as “the most wonderful game on record”.[12][13]

John Montgomery Ward

Monte Ward threw his perfect game at the Grays’ park in Providence, but Buffalo, by virtue of a coin toss, which was the custom under the rules at that time, was officially the “home” team, batting in the bottom of each inning. At the age of 20 years, 105 days, Ward is the youngest pitcher ever to throw a perfect game. He batted sixth in the lineup. Beginning in 1881, the year after his perfect game, Ward spent more time as a position player than a pitcher; in 1885, following an arm injury, he became a full-time infielder.[14] The five days between Ward’s game and Richmond’s is the shortest amount of time between major-league perfect games.

Cy Young

Young’s perfect game was part of a hitless streak of 24 or 25 1/3 straight innings—depending on whether or not partial innings at either end of the streak are included. In either calculation, the streak remains a record. It was also part of a streak of 45 straight innings in which Young did not give up a run, which was then a record.[15]

Of the 17 perfect games for which pitch counts are available, Addie Joss’s was the most efficient—74 pitches, fewer than three per batter.[16]

Addie Joss

Joss’s was the most pressure-packed of any regular-season perfect game. With just four games left on their schedule, the Naps were locked in a tight three-way pennant race with the Tigers and the White Sox, that day’s opponents. Joss’s counterpart, the great Ed Walsh, struck out 15 and gave up just four scattered singles. The lone, unearned run scored as a result of a botched pickoff play and a wild pitch.[17] The Naps ended the day tied with the Tigers for first, with the White Sox two games back; the Tigers would ultimately win the league by a half game over the Naps. Joss would throw a second no-hitter against the White Sox in 1910, making him the only major league pitcher ever to throw two no-hitters against the same team.

Charlie Robertson

Robertson’s perfect game was only his fifth appearance, and fourth start, in the big leagues. He finished his career with the fewest wins and lowest winning percentage (49–80, .380) of any perfect-game pitcher. The Tigers, led by player-manager Ty Cobb, accused Robertson of illegally doctoring the ball with oil or grease.[18] In terms of the opposing team’s ability to get on base, this is statistically the most unlikely of perfectos: the 1922 Tigers had an OBP of .369.[19]

Don Larsen

Larsen didn’t know he would pitch in Game 5 of the 1956 World Series until a few hours before gametime.[20] In his perfect game, Larsen employed the style he had adopted in mid-season, working without a windup. Just one Dodgers batter—Pee Wee Reese, in the first inning—worked a three-ball count.[21] The Dodgers had the highest season winning percentage of any team ever to lose a perfect game: .604. The image of catcher Yogi Berra leaping into Larsen’s arms after the final strike is one of the most famous in baseball history.[22] The 34 years between Robertson’s feat and Larsen’s is the longest gap between perfect games.

Jim Bunning

Bunning’s perfect game, pitched on Father’s Day, was the first in the National League since Ward’s 84 years before. Defying the baseball superstition that holds one should not talk about a no-hitter in progress, Bunning spoke to his teammates about the perfect game as it developed to loosen them up and relieve the pressure.[23]

Sandy Koufax

Koufax’s perfect game was the first one pitched at night. It was nearly a double no-hitter: Cubs pitcher Bob Hendley gave up only one hit, a bloop double to left-fielder Lou Johnson in the seventh inning that did not figure in the scoring. The Dodgers scored their only run in the fifth inning: Lou Johnson reached first on a walk, advanced to second on a sacrifice bunt, attempted a steal of third, and scored when Cubs catcher Chris Krug overthrew third base. The total number of base runners in the game—2—(both Johnson) is the fewest in major league history. Koufax’s 14 strikeouts are the most ever thrown by a perfect game pitcher.

Catfish Hunter

Hunter, a talented batter, was also the hitting star of his perfect game. He went 3 for 4 with a double and 3 RBIs, including a bunt single that drove home the first and thus winning run in the seventh inning—easily the best offensive performance ever by a perfect game pitcher. This was the first no-hitter of the Athletics’ Oakland tenure, which was only 25 games old.[24]

Len Barker

Barker’s perfect game was the first one in which designated hitters were used. He didn’t reach a three-ball count in the entire game.[25] Toronto shortstop Alfredo Griffin, who played for the losing team in this game, went on to play for the losers in the perfect games of Browning and Martínez. All 11 of Barker’s strikeouts were swinging.[26]

Mike Witt

Witt’s perfect game came on the last day of the 1984 season. Reggie Jackson, who drove in the only run of the game on a seventh-inning fielder’s choice ground ball, was also on the winning team in Hunter’s perfect game. After transitioning to the bullpen, Witt combined with starting pitcher Mark Langston to throw a no-hitter for the California Angels on April 11, 1990.

Tom Browning

Browning’s perfect game came against the team that eventually won that year’s World Series, the only time that has happened. A two-hour, twenty-seven-minute rain delay[27] caused the game to start at approximately 10 PM. Right fielder Paul O’Neill, who played for the winning side in this game, also played for the winning side in the perfect games of Wells and Cone. The following July 4, Browning came within an inning of becoming the first pitcher to throw two perfect games, retiring the first 24 batters in a game against the Phillies before surrendering a leadoff double in the ninth.[28]

Dennis Martínez

Martínez, born in Granada, Nicaragua, is the only major league pitcher born outside of the United States to throw a perfect game. Martínez reached only one three-ball count.[29] Opposing pitcher Mike Morgan was perfect through five full innings, the latest the opposing starter in a perfect game has remained perfect. Two days earlier, Expos pitcher Mark Gardner no-hit the Dodgers through nine innings but lost the no-hitter in the tenth, meaning the Expos narrowly missed throwing a no-hitter and a perfect game in the same series. Martínez’s catcher, Ron Hassey, also caught Len Barker’s perfect game. This was the third perfect game pitched against the Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers, joining those of Larsen and Browning; the only other teams to lose more than one perfect game are the Twins (Hunter and Wells) and the Rays (Buehrle and Braden).

Kenny Rogers

Rogers benefited from center fielder Rusty Greer’s fantastic diving catch of a line drive hit by Rex Hudler, leading off the ninth inning.[30] Rogers’s performance against the Angels came 10 seasons after Witt’s perfect game against the Rangers. The Angels and Rangers are the only major league teams to record perfect games against each other.

David Wells

Wells attended the same high school as Don Larsen: Point Loma High School, San Diego, California. They also both enjoyed the night life. Casey Stengel once said of Larsen, “The only thing he fears is sleep.” Wells has claimed to have been “half-drunk” and suffering from a “raging, skull-rattling hangover” during his perfect game.[31] Wells’s perfect game comprised the core of a streak of 38 consecutive retired batters (May 12–23, 1998) an American League record he held until 2007.

David Cone

Cone’s perfect game occurred on Yogi Berra Day. Don Larsen threw out the ceremonial first pitch to Berra, who had been his catcher during the 1956 World Series perfect game. Not a single Expo worked even a three-ball count.[32] Cone’s perfect game, to date the only one in regular-season interleague play, was interrupted by a 33-minute rain delay. This also represents the only time two successive perfect games have been thrown by the same team. This was the third perfect game in Yankee history; the Indians (Joss and Barker), White Sox (Robertson and Buehrle), A’s (Hunter and Braden), and Phillies (Bunning and Halladay) are the other teams to have more than one perfect game.

In 2004, Randy Johnson, then with the Arizona Diamondbacks, became the oldest pitcher ever to throw a perfect game.

Randy Johnson

Johnson threw his perfect game at the age of 40 years, 256 days, becoming, by more than three-and-a-half years, the oldest pitcher to achieve the feat. The former holder of the mark, Cy Young, threw his at the age of 37 years, 37 days. Of the 20 teams to have a perfect game thrown against them, the 2004 Braves had the second-highest OBP (.343) and second-highest winning percentage (.593).[33] In contrast, the Diamondbacks had by far the worst season winning percentage (.315) of any team to benefit from a perfect game.[33]

Mark Buehrle

Buehrle was assisted by a dramatic ninth-inning wall-climbing catch by center fielder DeWayne Wise to rob Gabe Kapler of a home run; Wise entered the game as a defensive replacement in that inning. This was the first major league perfect game in which the pitcher and catcher were battery-mates for the first time; Ramón Castro had been acquired by the White Sox less than two months before.[34] This was also the first perfect game to feature a grand slam, by Josh Fields in the bottom of the second inning. Umpire Eric Cooper, who called the game, was behind the plate for Buehrle’s previous no-hitter, as well.[35] The 2009 Rays are tied for the second-highest OBP (.343) of any team to be on the receiving end of a perfect game.[36] On July 28, Buehrle followed up with another 5+2?3 innings of perfection to set the major league record for consecutive batters retired at 45 (including the final batter he faced in his last appearance before the perfect game).[37]

Dallas Braden

Braden’s perfect game, pitched on Mother’s Day, was the first complete game of his career. It was the first time a perfect game has been pitched against the team with the best record in the majors at the time; coming into the contest, the Rays were 22–8.[38] Following Buehrle’s, this was the second successive perfect game thrown against the Rays, the second team to have successive perfect games against them (the first was the Dodgers in 1988 and 1991).[39] This game came 290 days after Buehrle’s, the shortest period between modern-day perfect games until Halladay’s occurred.

Roy Halladay

Halladay pitched the second perfect game of the 2010 season 20 days after Braden’s, by far the shortest period between perfect games in the modern era.[40] With Buehrle’s 2009 performance, this is the first time in major league history that three perfect games occurred within a one-year span. This is the seventh perfect game in which there were no earned runs, following those of Richmond, Joss, Koufax, Witt, Browning, and Martínez. Seven batters reached three-ball counts against Halladay.[41]

General notes

Three perfect-game pitchers had RBIs in their games: Hunter (3), Bunning (2), and Young (1). Hunter had three hits; Richmond, Ward, Bunning, and Martínez each had one. No pitcher has ever scored a run during his perfect game. Barker, Witt, Rogers, Wells, Cone, Buehrle, and Braden did not bat in their perfect games, as the American League adopted the designated hitter rule in 1973. The latest the winning runs have been scored in a perfect game is the seventh inning—this occurred in the games of Hunter (bottom), Witt (top), and Martínez (top).

Six perfect-game pitchers have also thrown at least one additional no-hitter: Young, Joss, Bunning, Koufax, Johnson, and Buehrle. Witt participated in a combined no-hitter. Koufax has the most total no-hitters of any perfect-game pitcher, with four. Richmond and Robertson were rookies, though each had made a single appearance in a previous season. Although by the latter part of the 20th century, major league games were being played predominantly at night, six of the last ten perfect games, and four of the last six, have taken place in the daytime. Of the thirty teams that currently make up Major League Baseball, ten have never been involved in a perfect game, win or lose: the Giants, Cardinals, Pirates, Orioles, Royals, Mariners, Brewers, Astros, Padres, and Rockies.

Though convention has it that the modern era of Major League Baseball begins in 1900, the essential rules of the modern game were all in place by the 1893 season. That year the pitching distance was moved back to 60 feet, 6 inches, where it remains, and the pitcher’s box was replaced by a rubber slab against which the pitcher was required to place his rear foot. Two other crucial rules changes had been made in recent years: In 1887, the rule awarding a hit batsman first base was instituted in the National League (this had been the rule in the American Association since 1884—first by the umpire’s judgment of the impact; as of the following year, virtually automatically).[42] In 1889, the number of balls required for a walk was reduced to four.[43] Thus, from 1893 on, pitchers sought perfection in a game whose most important rules are the same as today, with one significant exception. That exception, the use of the designated hitter in American League games since the 1973 season, might have been expected to make perfect games more difficult to achieve in the AL. In fact, since 1973, seven perfect games have been thrown with the DH rule in effect (including one interleague game held at an American League park) and only four without it.

The current official Major League Baseball definition of a perfect game is largely a side effect of the decision made by the major leagues’ Committee for Statistical Accuracy on September 4, 1991, to redefine a no-hitter as a game in which the pitcher or pitchers on one team throw a complete game of nine innings or more without surrendering a hit.[44] That decision removed a number of games that had long appeared in the record books: those lasting fewer than nine innings, and those in which a team went hitless in regulation but then got a hit in extra innings. The definition of perfect game was made to parallel this new definition of the no-hitter, in effect substituting “baserunner” for “hit”. As a result of the 1991 redefinition, for instance, Harvey Haddix receives credit for neither a perfect game nor a no-hitter for the game described below in which he threw 12 perfect innings before allowing a baserunner in the 13th.[45]

References:

1. ^ Madden, Bill (2008-09-12). “Yogi Berra’s Favorite Stadium Moment: Don Larsen’s Perfect Game”. Daily News. http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/baseball/yankees/2008/09/11/2008-09-11_yogi_berras_favorite_stadium_moment_don_-2.html. Retrieved 2010-02-05.
2. ^ “MLB Miscellany: Rules, Regulations and Statistics”. Major League Baseball. http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/official_info/about_mlb/rules_regulations.jsp. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
3. ^ “History: No-hitters”. Major League Baseball. http://mlb.mlb.com/mlb/history/rare_feats/index.jsp?feature=no_hitter. Retrieved 2007-08-22.
4. ^ Deutsch et al. (1975), p. 68. This source also includes an 1880 clipping from the New York Herald describing John Richmond’s perfect game for Worcester. A double error by Cleveland resulted in the lone run scoring, and the writer described it as “the only lapse from perfect play made by the Clevelands during the game”; the use of the word “perfect” in this context refers only to defensive play, a different meaning than its modern baseball sense, as Cleveland’s pitcher also surrendered three hits and a walk. See Deutsch et al. (1975), p. 14. Writeups for the Ward perfect game of 1880 and the Young game of 1904 describe the games as “wonderful” and other effusive terms, but do not use the term “perfect game”.
5. ^ Buckley (2002), p. 16, citing Paul Dickson, The Dickson Baseball Dictionary (1989); Coffey (2004), p. 50. The Baseball Cyclopedia reference came in a supplement to the 1922 edition of the book (a publication of Baseball Magazine) and was worded thus: “Charles Robertson of Chicago Americans pitched an absolutely perfect no-hit game against Detroit on April 30, 1922, no one reaching first.” The publication listed all the perfect games to that point (a total of five, including Robertson’s) and used the term “perfect game” matter-of-factly, possibly indicating the term was already familiar to the readership. Lanigan’s work references a 1914 book called Balldom as a source for his list of perfect games, although Balldom itself does not use the term “perfect game”, merely characterizing the games as “no batter reached first base.” Lanigan was also familiar with Sanborn’s baseball articles, making various references to him elsewhere in the Cyclopedia, although there is nothing indicating that Sanborn necessarily inspired Lanigan’s use of the term.
6. ^ Buckley (2002), p. 15.
7. ^ Buckley (2002), p. 26.
8. ^ “Charlie Robertson Perfect Game Box Score”. Baseball Almanac. http://www.baseball-almanac.com/boxscore/04301922.shtml. Retrieved 2010-05-10.
9. ^ Akin, William (2003). “Bill Phillips”. SABR Baseball Biography Project. http://bioproj.sabr.org/bioproj.cfm?a=v&v=l&bid=461&pid=11193. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
10. ^ Hanlon (1968).
11. ^ “Becker College: History”. Becker College. http://www.becker.edu/pages/398.asp. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
12. ^ Egan (2008), pp. 100, 295 n. 6, quotes the line within a longer passage quoted from the Cleveland Leader, June 14, 1880. Buckley (2002), p. 14, credits the Chicago Tribune with the line. Deutsch (1975), p. 14, presents a clipping from the New York Herald with the line.
13. ^ Okrent and Wulf (1989), pp. 14–15, describe a story that later emerged that Richmond hurled his historic perfecto after staying up all night following a pregraduation dinner at Brown University, pitching in an early morning class game, and taking a train to Worcester just in time to perform his professional duties. The BaseballLibrary.com entry on Richmond claims that a similar sequence of events preceded not his perfect game, but a game he pitched against the Chicago White Stockings on June 16. Egan (2008), p. 101, debunks the tale.
14. ^ Buckley (2002), p. 27.
15. ^ Browning (2003), pp. 145, 248.
16. ^ Coffey (2004), p. 28.
17. ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 185–186. BaseballLibrary.com claims it was a passed ball.
18. ^ Buckley (2005), pp. 58, 61–64.
19. ^ See Coffey (2004), p. 43, for an analysis of Detroit’s relatively desultory hitting at the point in the season when the game was played.
20. ^ Buckley (2002), pp. 73–74.
21. ^ Kennedy (1996).
22. ^ Lupica (1999), p. 51.
23. ^ Buckley (2002), p. vi.
24. ^ 1968 Oakland Athletics Game Log. Retrosheet. Retrieved on July 26, 2009.
25. ^ Newman (1981).
26. ^ Buckley (2002), p. 141.
27. ^ Buckley (2002), p. 169.
28. ^ “100 Most Memorable Reds Moments of the 20th Century”. Cincinnati Enquirer. 1999. http://reds.enquirer.com/reds99/100moments.html. Retrieved 2010-06-03. Box score: July 4, 1989—Cincinnati Reds at Philadelphia Phillies Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved on 2010-06-03.
29. ^ Buckley (2002), p. 189.
30. ^ Nightengale, Bob (1994-07-29). “The Pitcher Is Perfect, but Greer Gets the Save”. Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/1994-07-29/sports/sp-21254_1_perfect-game. Retrieved 2009-08-07. Richards, Charles (1994-07-29). “Rogers Fires Perfect Game For Rangers; Diving Grab in 9th Saves Gem”. Washington Post. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-902632.html. Retrieved 2009-08-07.
31. ^ “Wells Claims “25 to 40 Percent” of Players Use Steroids”. ESPN/Associated Press. 2003-02-27. http://static.espn.go.com/mlb/news/2003/0227/1515302.html. Retrieved 2009-03-06.
32. ^ Gallagher (2003), p. 431.
33. ^ a b 2004 National League Season Summary. Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved on July 26, 2009.
34. ^ Schlegel, John (2009-07-24). “For Buehrle, a Perfect Day for History”. MLB.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090724&content_id=6029476&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved 2009-07-24.
35. ^ Just, David (2009-07-23). “Same Ump Called Both Buehrle No-Nos”. MLB.com. http://chicago.cubs.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090723&content_id=6023278&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved 2009-07-24.
36. ^ 2009 American League Season Summary. Baseball-Reference.com. Retrieved on May 10, 2010.
37. ^ “Buehrle Breaks Record”. ESPN.com. 2009-07-29. http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=4362558. Retrieved 2009-07-29.
38. ^ “Standings and Games on Saturday, May 8, 2010″. Baseball-Reference.com. 2010-05-08. http://www.baseball-reference.com/games/standings.cgi?date=2010-05-08. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
39. ^ “Braden’s Perfect Game 19th Ever and Second Straight Against Rays”. Associated Press/ESPN.com. 2010-05-09. http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/recap?gameId=300509111. Retrieved 2010-05-09.
40. ^ “Perfect Phillie: Halladay Pitches Perfect Game”. MSNBC. 2010-05-29. http://nbcsports.msnbc.com/id/37419029/ns/sports-baseball/. Retrieved 2010-05-29.
41. ^ “Halladay’s Perfect Game Is This Season’s Second”. ESPN/Associated Press. 2010-05-29. http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/recap?gameId=300529128. Retrieved 2010-05-29.
42. ^ Dickson (2009), p. 415.
43. ^ “Baseball Rules Chronology 1845–1899″. BaseballLibrary.com. http://www.baseballlibrary.com/excerpts/rules1.php. Retrieved 2007-08-20.
44. ^ Young (1997), p. 29.
45. ^ Forker, Obojski, and Stewart (2004), p. 116.

Reality TV

Born in Crested Butte, Colorado,[1] Montag moved to California after graduating from high school where she enrolled at the Academy of Art University in San Francisco.[3] During freshman orientation, she met Lauren Conrad, who was then a featured cast member on the MTV reality series Laguna Beach: The Real Orange County.[4] After Montag and Conrad transferred to Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising in Los Angeles,[3] Conrad received her own spin-off series The Hills, which premiered on May 31, 2006.[5] Montag was featured in the series sharing an apartment with Conrad while studying at the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising. She eventually left the Fashion Institute in fall of 2005 when she was hired at Bolthouse Productions.[6] According to Montag, she dropped out because she “did not find the school challenging.”[7] Within two years, she was promoted to event planner at Bolthouse, before being fired and then re-hired.[8][9]

Montag appeared in every episode of seasons one and two of The Hills, and appeared in season three, which aired on MTV on August 13, 2007.[10] In the summer of 2006, Montag began dating fellow Hills cast member Spencer Pratt, a former manager of Brody Jenner. Season 2 of The Hills (which aired from January through April 2007) focused on Montag’s relationship with Pratt and its effect on her friendships with Conrad and fellow Hills cast member Audrina Patridge. On the Season 2 finale, Montag moved out of her apartment with Conrad to live with Pratt.[11] Although Conrad maintained the two were still friends after Montag moved out,[12] the friendship soon ended when Conrad blamed Montag and Pratt for spreading rumors about a sex tape featuring her and ex-boyfriend Jason Wahler.[13] In October 2008, the pair reportedly ended their feud.[14]

In August 2008, Conrad said that The Hills is “definitely reaching its end”, citing the privacy pitfalls.[15] Montag and Pratt have expressed an interest in adopting Conrad’s lead role and narrator. In a recent radio interview with Ryan Seacrest, Montag said “I think that maybe Lauren is tired of [being on the show], but we’re just beginning,” and that “We’re not even remotely sick of it.” Whereas Pratt stated that, “sometimes the narrator has to throw their hate up on the wall and pass the mic”, and expressed an interest in taking The Hills to a tenth season.[16] In April 2009, Montag signed on to appear on the reality series I’m a Celebrity… Get Me out of Here!.[17] Her appearance on the show, alongside husband Spencer, was criticized after the couple claimed they were subject to torture and left the show’s set multiple times before returning and ultimately withdrawing.[2][18][19]
Acting career

In November 2008 Montag and Pratt shot scenes for an episode of the CBS sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The two appeared as themselves in an episode aired in January 2009.[20] In 2010 Montag was cast in a cameo role in her first feature film, the Adam Sandler comedy Just Go with It.[21]
Music career

In February 2007, Montag started work on an album with producer David Foster.[22] It was also reported that she is on a one-song contract with Warner Bros., not a full studio contract as both Montag and her then-fiance Pratt had claimed.[23]

On August 16, 2007, Ryan Seacrest premiered Montag’s song “Body Language”, featuring Pratt rapping, on his KIIS-FM radio show. Both Montag and Pratt denied the song was her intended first single, with Pratt telling Us Weekly the tune “was a song Heidi and I were doing for fun. Never would I rap on her first single!”[23] In December 2007, another track by Montag and produced by David Foster entitled “Touch Me” was leaked online.[24]

On February 5, 2008, Montag’s first song, “Higher” received an online-only release on iTunes. The song and the video received a negative response from websites and readers across the internet, to which Montag responded, “I appreciate people taking the time to write any comment.”[25]

In March 2009 Montag hired songwriter Cathy Dennis to work on her upcoming album.[26] On April 1, 2009, she debuted her new song “Look How I’m Doing” on Ryan Seacrest’s KIIS-FM show.[27]

On August 23, 2009 Montag performed “Body Language” during the Miss Universe 2009 pageant in the Bahamas in front of an expected worldwide audience of one billion. The song “Body Language” samples music from the hit “Situation” by Yazoo and it was performed by Montag during the presentation of all delegates in their swimming costumes.[28]

Montag’s debut album, Superficial was digitally released on January 11, 2010. The album sold less than 1,000 copies in its first day,[29] and just over 1,000 copies its first week.[30]

During early April of 2010, the music video for “Superficial” was released on YouTube.

Montag has expressed interest in releasing a Christian music album.[31]

“More Is More” is Montag’s only song that managed to chart.
Fashion line

Montag debuted her fashion line, Heidiwood, at a fashion show at the Hollywood and Highland shopping center in Hollywood on April 11, 2008.[32] Shortly after, she promoted her line in New York City, at MTV’s TRL, among other places.[33]
Personal life

In 2005 Montag began dating Jordan Eubanks.[3] Montag broke off her relationship with Eubanks in the spring of 2006, something she has described as “the best decision of [her] life” and “something that [she] should have done earlier”.[6]

In May 2007 she and Spencer Pratt announced their engagement.[34] During The Hills season finale in December 2007, Heidi and Spencer broke off their engagement. During a broadcast of Ryan Seacrest’s radio show, Spencer said that he was madly in love with Montag and trying to win her back.[35] On November 20, 2008, Montag and Spencer had a marriage ceremony in Mexico. No family members were present and the wedding ceremony lasted 15 minutes.[36][37] Montag and Pratt married a second time on April 25, 2009 in Pasadena, California.[38] Montag has publicly identified as Christian.[39]

On March 3, 2008, Montag’s stepbrother Eric O’Hara was killed in an accident after a fall from an icy roof. O’Hara was a veteran of Iraq and Afghanistan and served the 82nd Airborne Division.[40]

In an April 2008 interview Montag said she was a Republican and that she planned to vote for John McCain in the 2008 presidential election.[41] At the time, she was not registered to vote, but she said this was because she had been too busy and that she planned to register soon.[42] In a later interview in July 2009 on Alex Jones’ radio show, Montag retracted her Republican support and said she no longer believes in the left–right politics paradigm.[43] During the interview Montag cited Jones’ documentary The Obama Deception as her reason for changing her political viewpoint.

On June 8, 2010, she filed for legal separation from Platt, listing irreconcilable differences as the reason for their separation.
Plastic surgeries

After months of speculation and rumors, Montag said in September 2007 that she had breast augmentation, collagen lip injections, and rhinoplasty in April 2007.[44]

In a 2010 interview with People magazine, Montag revealed that she had ten plastic surgery procedures done in one day which included brow lifts, ear-pinnings and a chin reduction. She revealed that she almost died from too much Demerol, reducing her breath rate to five breaths per minute, but said that it was still worth it.[45]

She later shot a campaign ad with director Ron Howard called “Heidi Montag Says No to Plastic”.[46]

References

1. ^ a b “Heidi Montag: Snapshot”. People.com. http://www.people.com/people/heidi_montag. Retrieved 2009-04-24.
2. ^ a b NBC: “Heidi and Spencer Pratt Return to NBC’s Hit Reality Series ‘I’m a Celebrity…Get Me Out of Here!” (June 3, 2009)
3. ^ a b c “Heidi Montag: Biography”. people.com. http://www.people.com/people/heidi_montag/biography. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
4. ^ Ogunnaike, Lola (2006-06-11). “SHOPPING WITH – Lauren Conrad and Heidi Montag; Blond Ambition Comes in Flats or Heels”. The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9E0CE4D91231F932A25755C0A9609C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all. Retrieved 2009-04-21.
5. ^ Heffernan, Virginia (2006-05-31). “The Hills, a Follow-Up to Laguna Beach, Makes Its Premiere on MTV”. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/31/arts/television/31heff.html?ex=1306728000&en=fe39fc3b2b081c2f&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss. Retrieved 2007-03-27.
6. ^ a b “Heidi Montag Is on Top of the World”. Stuff Magazine. 2007-02-07. http://www.stuffmagazine.com/articles/index.aspx?id=1758. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
7. ^ Garfinkel, Jacki (2006-08-02). “Interview with Heidi of MTV’s The Hills”. mediaVillage. http://www.mediavillage.com/jmentr/2006/08/02/Jacki-08-02-06/. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
8. ^ The Hills episode, original airdate 2007-10-03
9. ^ “The Hills Episode 13 Season 4″. MTV.com. http://www.mtv.com/videos/the-hills-season-4-ep-13-its-her-move/1598341/playlist.jhtml. Retrieved 2008-11-06.
10. ^ Nordyke, Kimberly (2007-04-05). “Hills Rolling for Season Three at MTV”. The Hollywood Reporter. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/television/news/e3i29278a389c6bdb2f58b3c0327a7877e6. Retrieved 2007-04-06.
11. ^ Norman, Pete (2007-08-09). “Heidi Montag ‘Moving On’ After Hills Feud”. people.com. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20050642,00.html. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
12. ^ Sundel, Jenny (2007-03-27). “Lauren Conrad Stays Friends with (Most) Exes”. people.com. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20015887,00.html. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
13. ^ Peiffer, Kim (2007-08-15). “Lauren Conrad: I Don’t Even Know Heidi Anymore”. people.com. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20051882,00.html. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
14. ^ “Report: ‘The Hills’ Stars Lauren Conrad and Heidi Montag Friends Again”. foxnews.com. 2008-10-08. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,438215,00.html. Retrieved 2008-11-12.
15. ^ “Hills Angels”. The New York Post. 2008-08-17. http://www.nypost.com/seven/08172008/tv/hills_angel_124629.htm.
16. ^ “Heidi & Spencer Would Love to Take Over The Hills from LC”. People Magazine. 2008-08-18. http://tvwatch.people.com/2008/08/18/heidi-spencer-would-love-to-take-over-the-hills-from-lc/.
17. ^ “Heidi Montag & Spencer Pratt Join ‘I’m A Celebrity… Get Me Out Of Here’”. nbcwashington.com. 2009-04-17. http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/entertainment/Heidi_Montag___Spencer_Pratt_Join__I_m_A_Celebrity__Get_Me_Out_Of_Here_.html. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
18. ^ Daily News: “Spencer and Heidi Pratt quit ‘I’m a Celebrity…Get Me Out of Here!’” (June 2, 2009)
19. ^ Holmes, Linda (2009-06-09). “Spencer, Heidi jeopardize their fragile ‘fame’”. MSNBC.com. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/31187605/. Retrieved 2009-06-09.
20. ^ Wang, Cynthia (2008-11-10). “Heidi and Spencer Will Guest Star on How I Met Your Mother”. people.com. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20239434,00.html. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
21. ^ “Heidi Montag Scores Big Screen Comedy Role; Hires Psychic For Manager & Fires Spencer | Access Hollywood – Celebrity News, Photos & Videos”. Access Hollywood. 2010-03-11. http://www.accesshollywood.com/heidi-montag-scores-big-screen-comedy-role-hires-psychic-for-manager-and-fires-spencer_article_30041. Retrieved 2010-03-27.
22. ^ “MTV’S Heidi Montag Shows Off Her Own Hills”. Us Weekly: p. 5. 2007-02-06. http://www.usmagazine.com/mtvs_heidi_montag_shows_off_her_own_hills_1?page=5. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
23. ^ a b “Heidi and Spencer “Furious” Over Song Leak”. Us Weekly. 2007-08-16. http://usmagazine.com/heidi_and_spencer_furious_over_song_leak?page=2. Retrieved 2007-10-17.
24. ^ “Listen to Heidi Montag’s New Song!”. Us Weekly. 2007-12-13. http://www.usmagazine.com/heidi_montags_new_song. Retrieved 2007-12-16.
25. ^ “Heidi Montag Thanks You for Your Comments”. People. 2008-02-06. http://peoplefalltv.wordpress.com/2008/02/06/heidi-montag-thanks-you-for-your-comments/. Retrieved 2008-02-06.
26. ^ “Heidi Montag hires Cathy Dennis to make her a pop star”. The Daily Telegraph. 2009-03-18. http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,25201296-5012327,00.html. Retrieved 2009-04-01.
27. ^ “Heidi Montag Debuts Her New Song”. People Magazine. 2009-04-01. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20269286,00.html. Retrieved 2009-04-01.
28. ^ “Miss Universe 2009 Special » Telecast Running Order”. GlobalBeauties.com. 2009-08-21. http://www.globalbeauties.com/universe/2009/?p=2512. Retrieved 2010-03-27.
29. ^ “Heidi Montag’s Debut Album Flops in First Week”. parade.com. 2010-01-21. http://www.parade.com/celebrity/hollywood-wire/2010/01/21/heidi-montags-debut-album-flops-in-first-week.html. Retrieved 28 January 2010.
30. ^ “Heidi Montag’s album an early flop”. music.msn.com. 2010-01-21. http://music.msn.com/music/article.aspx?news=453244&silentchk=1&. Retrieved 28 January 2010.
31. ^ “‘Hills’ Star Heidi Montag Plans Christian Album”. foxnews.com. 2008-07-01. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,374369,00.html. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
32. ^ “Heidi Montag Has a Fashion Show”, Usmagazine.com, April 12, 2008.
33. ^ “Heidi Montag Brings a Little ‘Heidistinks’ Glamor to the Big Apple”. Pacific Coast News Online. 2008-04-15. http://pacificcoastnewsonline.com/2008/04/heidi-montag-brings-a-little-h.html#more.
34. ^ “Spencer Pratt and Heidi Montag Engaged!”. US Weekly. 2007-05-23. http://www.usmagazine.com/spencer_pratt_and_heidi_montag_engaged. Retrieved 2007-03-26.
35. ^ Parsley, Aaron; Keith, Amy (2007-12-11). “The HillsSpencer Is Trying to Win Heidi Back”. People. http://peoplefalltv.wordpress.com/2007/12/11/the-hills-heidi-and-spencers-wedding-is-off/. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
36. ^ “Heidi and Spencer Get Married”. ok.co.uk. 2008-11-24. http://ok.co.uk/celebnews/view/5430/Heidi-and-Spencer-get-married/. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
37. ^ Boehm, Kristin (2008-11-24). “Report: Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt Elope”. people.com. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20242388,00.html. Retrieved 2008-11-25.
38. ^ Oh, Eunice (2009-04-20). “Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt to Get Married – Again”. people.com. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20273386,00.html. Retrieved 2009-04-22.
39. ^ Gutierrez, Lisa, Heidi Pratt on next Playboy spread: I’ll have more to reveal, kansascity.com, 18 August 2009. Retrieved 26 August 2009.
40. ^ Silverman, Stephen M. (2008-03-03). “Freak Accident Claims Heidi Montag’s Stepbrother”. people.com. http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20181541,00.html. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
41. ^ “Heidi Montag: I’m Voting For John Mccain”. Us Weekly. April 2, 2008. http://www.usmagazine.com/heidi_montag_im_voting_for_john_mccain.
42. ^ James Montgomery, “‘Hills’ Star Heidi Montag Promises To Register To Vote This Week, Nixes Flick Based On Reality Show”, MTV News, April 14, 2008.
43. ^ “Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt on Alex Jones TV”. Infowars.com. http://www.infowars.com/heidi-montag-and-spencer-pratt-on-alex-jones-tv/. Retrieved 2010-03-27.
44. ^ “Hills Exclusive: Heidi Confirms Plastic Surgery, Says She “Hated” Her Body”. Us Weekly. 2007-09-26. http://usmagazine.com/cover_story_12. Retrieved 2007-10-17.
45. ^ Garcia, Jennifer (2010-01-25). “Heidi Montag Obsessed with Being “Perfect”". People 73 (3). http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20342923,00.html.
46. ^ “Heidi Montag Says No to Plastic from Heidi Montag, Ron Howard, and Jake – Video”. Funnyordie.com. http://www.funnyordie.com/videos/a1da6ff653/heidi-montag-says-no-to-plastic. Retrieved 2010-03-27.

Early life

Kaufman was born in New York City, on January 17, 1949, the first son of Janice (née Bernstein) and Stanley Kaufman. He grew up in a middle-class Jewish family,[2] in Great Neck, Long Island, New York, and began performing at age nine.[3] He attended the now defunct two-year Grahm Junior College,[4] in Boston, graduating in 1971. He then began performing stand-up comedy at various small clubs along the East Coast.

Career

Foreign Man and Mighty Mouse

Kaufman first caught major attention with a character known as Foreign Man, who claimed to be from Caspiar (a fictional island in the Caspian Sea) and would appear on the stage of comedy clubs to play a recording of the theme from “Mighty Mouse,” lip-synch one line—”Here I come to save the day.” He would proceed to poorly tell a few jokes and perform a number of lackluster impersonations (Archie Bunker, Richard Nixon, et al.). Some variations of this performance were broadcast in the first season of Saturday Night Live; the Mighty Mouse number was featured in the October 11, 1975 premiere, while the joke-telling and Bunker impression were included in the November 8 broadcast that same fall.[5]

Another Kaufman routine would involve him speaking in a fake accent, saying, “I would like to imitate Meester Carter, de President of de United States.” He would continue in the same voice: “Hello, I am Meester Carter, de President of de United States. T’ank you veddy much.” The audience would be torn between outrage at seeing such a bad act and empathy for the hapless entertainer, who would cry onstage once heckled enough.

At that point, Foreign Man would announce, “And now I would like to imitate the Elvis Presley,” turn around, take off his jacket, slick his hair back, and launch into an Elvis Presley impersonation so good that Presley himself described it as his favorite.[6] After the wild applause that almost always came after his Elvis impression, he would take a simple bow and say in his Foreign Man voice, “T’ank you veddy much!” The audience would be left unsure whether they had been tricked, which became a trademark of Kaufman’s comedy.

Latka

Kaufman first used a version of the Foreign Man character as Andy the Robot in the pilot for the sitcom Stick Around in 1977. The character was then changed into Latka Gravas, for ABC’s Taxi sitcom, appearing in 79 of 114 episodes from 1978 to 1983.[7] The producers of Taxi had seen Andy’s Foreign Man act and, according to producer Ed Weinberger, “We weren’t considering Andy for the show before we saw him. Then we wrote a part for him.” Bob Zmuda confirms this: “They basically were buying Andy’s Foreign Man character for the Taxi character Latka.”[8] Andy’s long-time manager George Shapiro encouraged Andy to take the gig. “My feeling was that it would be a nice boost for his career…and he would be playing a character that he knew very well, the Foreign Man—this particular character speaks poor English in Taxi and his name is Latka Gravas.”[9]

Kaufman disliked sitcoms and was not thrilled with the idea of being in one. In order to allow Kaufman to demonstrate some comedic range, his character was given multiple personality disorder, which allowed Kaufman to randomly portray other characters. In one episode, Kaufman’s character came down with a condition which made him act like Alex Reiger, the main character played by Judd Hirsch. Another such recurring character played by Kaufman was the womanizing Vic Ferrari. Latka’s wife in the series was named Simka, who was portrayed by comic actress Carol Kane. His role did lead to two Golden Globe nominations, in 1979 and 1980.[10] His appearance on this show included a sketch of him supposedly rehearsing for a Taxi episode but ended up being a made-up gag sequence.

Taxi was an award-winning show with a large audience and Kaufman was widely recognized as Latka. On some occasions, audiences would show up to one of Kaufman’s stage performances expecting to see him perform as Latka, and heckling him with demands when he did not. Kaufman would punish these audiences with the announcement that he was going to read The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald to them. The audience would laugh at this, not realizing that he was serious, and Kaufman would proceed to read the book to them, continuing despite audience members’ departure. At a certain point, he would ask the audience if they wanted him to keep reading, or play a record. When the audience chose to hear the record, the record he cued up was a recording of him continuing to read The Great Gatsby from where he had left off.

Tony Clifton

Another well-known Kaufman character is Tony Clifton, an audience-abusing lounge singer who began opening for Kaufman at comedy clubs and eventually even performed concerts on his own around the country. Sometimes it was Kaufman performing as Clifton, sometimes it was his brother Michael or his friend Bob Zmuda. For a brief time, it was unclear to some that Clifton was not a real person. News programs interviewed Clifton as Kaufman’s opening act, with the mood turning ugly whenever Kaufman’s name came up. Kaufman, Clifton insisted, was attempting to ruin Clifton’s “good name” in order to make money and get famous.

As a requirement for Kaufman accepting the offer to star on Taxi, he insisted that Clifton be hired for a guest role on the show as if he were a real person, not a character. After throwing a tantrum on the set, Clifton was fired and escorted off of the studio lot by security guards. Much to Kaufman’s delight, this incident was reported in the local newspapers. Paramount TV and producers James L. Brooks and Stan Daniels later released a statement that said that although Clifton was “no longer welcome on the set,” his friend Andy Kaufman would continue in his role as Latka, which he did until the show ended its run in 1983.
Carnegie Hall “milk and cookies” show

At the beginning of an April 1979 performance at New York’s Carnegie Hall, Kaufman invited his “grandmother” to watch the show from a chair he had placed at the side of the stage. At the end of the show, she stood up, took her mask off and revealed to the audience that she was actually comedian Robin Williams in disguise. Kaufman also had an elderly woman (named Eleanor Cody Gould) appear to have a heart attack and die on stage, at which point he reappeared on stage wearing a Native American headdress and performed a dance over her body, seeming to revive her.

The performance is most famous for Kaufman ending the show by actually taking the entire audience, in twenty buses, out for milk and cookies. He invited anyone interested to meet him on the Staten Island Ferry the next morning, where the show continued. This kind of performance art is a hallmark of Kaufman’s career. This was depicted in the biopic Man on the Moon; however, in the movie, it takes place after Kaufman was diagnosed with cancer, when in reality, it took place nearly four years earlier.
Andy’s Funhouse

The Taxi deal with ABC included giving Kaufman a television special. He came up with Andy’s Funhouse, based on an old routine he had developed while in junior college. The special was taped in 1977 but did not air until August 1979, on ABC.[11] It featured most of Andy’s famous gags, including Foreign Man/Latka and his Elvis Presley impersonation, as well as a host of unique segments (including a special appearance by children’s television character Howdy Doody and the “Has-been Corner”). There also was a segment that included fake television screen static as part of the gag, which ABC executives were not comfortable with, fearing that viewers would mistake the static for broadcast problems and would change the channel – which was the comic element Kaufman wanted to present.

Andy’s Funhouse was written by Kaufman, Zmuda, and Mel Sherer, with music by Kaufman.
The Fridays incident

In 1981, Kaufman made three appearances[12] on Fridays, a variety show on ABC that was similar to Saturday Night Live. Kaufman’s first appearance on the show proved to be memorable. During a sketch about four people out on a dinner date who excuse themselves to the restroom to smoke marijuana, Kaufman broke character and refused to say his lines.

The other comedians were embarrassed by the position that Kaufman had put them in on a live television show.[citation needed] In response, cast member Michael Richards walked off camera and returned with a set of cue cards and dumped them on the table in front of Kaufman. Andy responded by splashing Richards with water. Co-producer Jack Burns stormed onto the stage, leading to a brawl on camera before the show abruptly cut away to commercial.[13] It was later revealed that this incident was a practical joke.[citation needed]

Regardless, Kaufman appeared the following week in a videotaped apology to the home viewers. Later that year, Kaufman returned to host Fridays. At one point in the show, he invited a Lawrence Welk Show gospel and standards singer, Kathie Sullivan, on stage to sing a few gospel songs with him and announced that the two were engaged to be married, then talked to the audience about his newfound faith in Jesus. That was also a hoax. Later, following a sketch about a drug abusing pharmacist, Kaufman was supposed to introduce the band The Pretenders. Instead of introducing the band, he delivered a nervous speech about the harmfulness of drugs while the band stood behind him ready to play. After his speech, he informed the audience that he had talked for too long and had to go to a commercial.

Professional wrestling

Kaufman grew up admiring professional wrestlers and the world in which they perform. Inspired by the theatricality of kayfabe, the staged nature of the sport, and his own tendency to form elaborate hoaxes, Kaufman began wrestling women during his act and was the self-proclaimed “Inter-Gender Wrestling Champion of the World,” taking on an aggressive and ridiculous personality based upon the characters invented by professional wrestlers. He offered a $1,000 reward to any woman who could pin him.

Kaufman initially approached then-WWF (now WWE) owner Vince McMahon, Sr. about bringing his act to the New York territory. McMahon found Kaufman’s act too gimmicky and suggested to the comedian that he try his luck in the Southern wrestling territories, where Kaufman’s gimmick might have more appeal.

Later, after a challenge from professional wrestler Jerry “The King” Lawler, Kaufman would step into the ring (in the Memphis wrestling circuit) with a man—Lawler himself. Their ongoing feud, often featuring Jimmy Hart and other heels in Kaufman’s corner, included a broken neck for Kaufman as a result of Lawler’s piledriver and a famous on-air fight on a 1982 episode of Late Night with David Letterman. For some time after that, Kaufman appeared everywhere wearing a neck brace, insisting that his injuries were worse than they were. Kaufman would continue to defend the Inter-Gender Championship in the Mid-South Coliseum, and offered an extra prize, other than the $1,000.00: that if he were pinned, the woman who pinned him would get to marry him and that he (Kaufman) would also shave his head.

Kaufman and Lawler’s famous feud and wrestling matches were later revealed to have been staged, or a “work,” as the two were actually friends. The truth about its being a “work” was not disclosed until more than 10 years after Kaufman’s death, when the Emmy-nominated documentary, A Comedy Salute to Andy Kaufman, aired on NBC in 1995. Coincidentally, Jim Carrey is the one who reveals the secret, and would later go on to play Kaufman in the 1999 film Man on the Moon. In a 1997 interview with the Memphis Flyer, Lawler claimed he had improvised during their first match and the Letterman incident. Although officials at St. Francis Hospital stated that Kaufman’s neck injuries were real, in his 2002 biography It’s Good to Be the King…Sometimes, Lawler detailed how they came up with the angle and kept it quiet. Even though Kaufman’s injury was legitimate, the pair pretended that the injury was more severe than it was. He also said that Kaufman’s explosion on Letterman was the comedian’s own idea, including when Lawler slapped Kaufman out of his chair.

Lawler also revealed in his autobiography that after Kaufman’s death, family members discovered numerous uncashed checks from his wrestling tenure, suggesting that Kaufman participated in wrestling purely for the love of the sport, and not for money.

Kaufman also appeared in the 1983 film My Breakfast with Blassie with professional wrestling personality “Classy” Freddie Blassie, a parody of the art film My Dinner With Andre. The film was directed by Johnny Legend, who employed his sister Lynne Margulies as one of the girls who appears in the film. Margulies met Kaufman for the first time on camera, and they later became a couple, living together until Kaufman’s death.

In 2008 Jakks Pacific produced an action figure 2-pack of Kaufman and Lawler in their WWE Classic Superstars toy line, to be followed by a singles figure release in Jakks Pacific’s Classic Superstars series 22.

Appearances

Kaufman made a name for himself as a guest on NBC’s Saturday Night Live, starting with the inaugural October 11, 1975 show, and making 16 appearances in all,[14] although his last two appearances were simply aired video-tapes and not live. He would do routines from his comedy act, such as the Mighty Mouse sing-along, Foreign Man character, the Elvis impersonation, etc. After he angered the audience with his female wrestling routine, in January 1983 Kaufman did make a pre-taped appearance (his “16th”) on the show, where he asked the audience if he should ever appear on the show again, and said that he would honor the audience’s decision and stay off the show if the vote was negative. SNL ran a phone vote, and close to 195,544 people voted to “Dump Andy” and approximately 169,186 people voted to “Keep Andy”,[15][16] so Kaufman did not appear “live” but SNL did air a tape of him thanking the 169,186 people who had voted “yes” for him to appear again, which could be considered a “17th” appearance.

Though it was never made clear whether this was a gag, Kaufman did not appear on the show again. During the SNL episode with the Keep Andy/Dump Andy phone poll, many of the cast stated their admiration for Andy’s work and read the “Keep Andy” number more clearly than the “Dump Andy” number.[17] Eddie Murphy read the “Keep Andy” number at a much faster rate than the “Dump Andy” number, while Mary Gross read the “Dump Andy” number at a rate so fast that audiences were unable to catch it.[17] The final tally was read triumphantly by Gary Kroeger to a cheering audience.

Kaufman made a number of appearances on the daytime The David Letterman Show in 1980, and eleven appearances on Late Night with David Letterman in 1982-1983,[18] including one where he claimed to be homeless and begged the audience for money and one where he talked about his adopted children, who turned out to be three fully-grown black men.

His first prime time appearances were several guest spots as the ‘Foreign Man’ on the “Dick Van Dyke Variety” Show in 1976. He also appeared four times on The Tonight Show[19] from 1976–1978, three times on The Midnight Special in 1972, 1977 and 1981.[20] In the 1977 episode, Kaufman performed a song called “I Trusted You” (which features only those three words, repeated over and over, as lyrics), while in 1981 he is shown sitting in the audience during Tony Clifton’s act (although it was obvious Kaufman was not in the audience during the sketch). He appeared twice on The Merv Griffin Show (1979–1980),[21] and once, in 1978 as a participant, on The Dating Game[22] under a presumed name and as a supposedly real contestant. He also made numerous guest spots on other television programs hosted by or starring celebrities like Johnny Cash (1979 Christmas special), Dick Van Dyke, Dinah Shore, Rodney Dangerfield, Cher, Dean Martin, Redd Foxx, Mike Douglas, Dick Clark, and Joe Franklin.[23] He appeared in his first theatrical film God Told Me To in 1976, where he portrayed a murderous policeman. He also appeared in several others, including as a televangelist in the 1980 film In God We Tru$t.

Laurie Anderson worked alongside Andy Kaufman for a time in the 1970s, acting as a sort of straight woman in a number of his Manhattan and Coney Island performances. One of these performances included getting on a ride that people stand in and get spun around. After everyone was strapped in Kaufman would start saying how he did not want to be on the ride in a panicked tone and eventually cry. Anderson later described these performances in her 1995 album The Ugly One with the Jewels.

At Park West Theatre in Chicago on March 26, 1982 Kaufman performed stage hypnosis where he induced local DJ Steve Dahl to urinate while sitting in a large box. Other staged inductions included Bob Zmuda’s childhood friend Joe Troiani mimicking the behavior of a pig and long-time friend Bill Karmia dressed as a police officer arresting Kaufman for inducing public nudity with a woman he had hypnotized.

Personal life

Kaufman was survived by his daughter, Maria Colonna, who was born in 1969 out of wedlock with a high-school girlfriend of Kaufman’s, but later placed for adoption. Colonna learned in 1992 that she was the daughter of Andy Kaufman, when she traced her biological parentage.[24]

In college, Kaufman learned Transcendental Meditation (TM). According to a BBC article, Kaufman used TM to build confidence and take his act to comedy clubs. For the rest of his life Kaufman meditated and performed yoga for three hours a day.[25] He trained as a teacher of Transcendental Meditation in Majorca, Spain from February to June, 1971.[26]

Friends and family said that Kaufman almost never smoked, did not drink regularly, and was also a vegetarian.

Death

At Thanksgiving dinner in 1983, several family members grew concerned over Kaufman’s persistent coughing for the past month. Kaufman consulted a physician and was initially diagnosed with a rare type of lung cancer in December 1983. Despite his doctor’s prognosis that there was no hope for recovery, he was committed to fighting the disease until his death. After audiences were shocked by his gaunt appearance during his performances in January 1984, Kaufman acknowledged having an unspecified illness, which he hoped to cure with “natural medicine” including an all-fruit and vegetables diet, among other measures. Kaufman received palliative radiotherapy, but by then the cancer had rapidly spread from his lungs to his brain. His last resort, a search for successful medical therapy, was “psychic surgery,” performed in Baguio, Philippines, in March 1984. Kaufman died in Los Angeles on May 16, 1984[27] of kidney failure, caused by metastasized large cell carcinoma, and was interred in the Beth David Cemetery in Elmont, New York (Long Island). He was 35 years old.

Because he kept the true nature of his illness a secret—almost until the day he died—fans have, over the years, doubted Kaufman’s death, thinking that he staged it as the ultimate Andy Kaufman stunt. At the time, lung cancer was considered rare for non-smokers to contract, and it is also rare in people under the age of 40.

Claims of resurfacing

Andy Kaufman allegedly told many people—including Bob Zmuda — that he wished to fake his own death prior to his actual death. This has caused some fans to believe Kaufman is still alive.[28] Kaufman himself purportedly claimed that if he were to fake his death, he would return 10 years later.[29]

The 1999 Jim Carrey film Man on the Moon leaves the question open-ended. “Tony Clifton” performed a year after Kaufman’s death at The Comedy Store benefit in Kaufman’s honor, with members of his entourage in attendance. Bob Zmuda has acknowledged “death hoax” rumors over the years quite tongue-in-cheek, admitting that Kaufman and he had discussed faking his death at times and that he seemed “obsessed with the idea,” but he maintains the opinion that Kaufman truly did die and his death was not faked. Bob Zmuda claims he does not think he would be cruel enough to go this long without making contact with his family if he were still alive.

During the 1990s, “Tony Clifton” made several appearances at LA nightclubs, prompting speculation that perhaps Kaufman was still alive and working under the makeup. Jim Carrey stated on the NBC special ‘Comedy Salute to Andy Kaufman’ that the Clifton character had been passed off by Kaufman to Bob Zmuda while he was still alive. Kaufman’s death certificate is on file with the Los Angeles County Department of Health Services and is also available on the popular website The Smoking Gun.[30]

In popular culture
Music

* The band R.E.M. refers to Andy Kaufman, his Elvis impersonation and other facets of his life in their song “Man on the Moon” from the 1992 CD Automatic for the People. A second song about Andy Kaufman by R.E.M., “The Great Beyond,” appeared both in this movie and on the soundtrack.[31]
* Rapper Sage Francis performs a song about staging his own death entitled, “Andy Kaufman,” on his album, Still Sick… Urine Trouble. He also references Kaufman’s “I Trusted You” in a song of the same title, on his album Sick Of Wasting.
* Singer Cedric Bixler-Zavala of The Mars Volta has a tattoo of Andy Kaufman’s face on his left biceps.
* A cappella group The Bobs recorded “Andy Always Dreamed of Wrestling” on their 1995 album “Plugged”

Film
Main article: Man on the Moon (film)

* Jim Carrey portrayed Kaufman in the 1999 film Man on the Moon, directed by Miloš Forman. The film took its title from the R.E.M. song of the same name.

Video games

* Andy Kaufman has posthumously appeared in Acclaim’s Legends of Wrestling II (2002) and Showdown: Legends of Wrestling (2004).

Filmography
Acting

* Van Dyke and Company (1975) (TV)
* Van Dyke and Company (1976) TV Series… Regular
* God Told Me To (1976) …. Police Officer
* Stick Around (1977) (TV) …. Andy, the Robot
* Taxi (1978) TV Series …. Latka Gravas/Vic Ferrari
* Andy’s Funhouse (1979) (TV) (also as Tony Clifton)…Latka Gravas/Tony Clifton
* Cher… and Other Fantasies (1979) (TV)
* Andy Kaufman Plays Carnegie Hall (1980) (TV)…Tony Clifton
* In God We Tru$t (1980) …. Armageddon T. Thunderbird
* The Midnight Special (1981) TV Series… Host
* Heartbeeps (1981) …. Val
* Catch a Rising Star’s 10th Anniversary (1982) (TV)
* The Fantastic Miss Piggy Show (1982) (TV) …. Tony Clifton
* The Andy Kaufman Show (1983) (TV) … Host/Elvis
* My Breakfast with Blassie (1983)
* Elayne Boosler: Party of One (1985) (TV) (voice)
* I’m From Hollywood (1989)

Writing

* Andy’s Funhouse (1979) (TV)
* Andy Kaufman Plays Carnegie Hall (1980) (V)
* The Andy Kaufman Show (1983) (TV)
* I’m From Hollywood (1989) (uncredited)
* GOD…and other plays (1999)
* The Huey Williams Story (1999)
* Poetry and Stories (2000)

Composing

* Man on the Moon (1999) (song “Oh, The Cow Goes Moo”)

Producing

* Andy’s Funhouse (1979) (TV) (producer)

Notable TV guest appearances

* The Dean Martin Comedy World 6 June 1974
* The Joe Franklin Show 20 June 1974
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 1.1) 11 October 1975 …. Foreign Man
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 1.3) 25 October 1975 …. Foreign Man
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 1.4) 8 November 1975 …. Foreign Man
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 1.15) 28 February 1976
* The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson 23 June 1976
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 2.11) 15 January 1977 …. Foreign Man/Elvis
* Dinah! 17 January 1977 …. Foreign Man
* The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson 21 January 1977
* The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson 3 March 1977
* The Hollywood Squares 15 August 1977
* Redd Foxx 15 September 1977
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 3.3) 15 October 1977 …. includes Elvis impersonation
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 3.7) 10 December 1977
* The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson 20 February 1978
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 3.13) 11 March 1978
* The Mike Douglas Show 11 April 1978
* The Dating Game (as Baji Kimran) 21 November 1978 …. – Participant
* Live Wednesday 29 November 1978
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 4.13) 24 February 1979
* The Tomorrow Show 20 August 1979
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 5.2) 20 October 1979
* Saturday Night Live (uncredited) (episode # 5.5) 17 November 1979
* The Johnny Cash Christmas Special 1979 6 December 1979
* The Merv Griffin Show 13 December 1979
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 5.8) 22 December 1979
* The Merv Griffin Show 25 January 1980
* The Midnight Special 23 January 1981
* Fridays (episode # 2.20) 20 February 1981 …. Guest Host
* Fridays playing “Himself – Recorded Apology” (episode # 2.21) 27 February 1981
* Fridays playing “Guest Host” (episode # 3.1) 18 September 1981 …. Guest Host
* Good Morning America 28 October 1981
* Saturday Night Live playing “Elvis” (episode # 7.10) 30 January 1982 …. Elvis
* Late Night with David Letterman 17 February 1982
* Late Night with David Letterman 18 February 1982
* Late Night with David Letterman 30 March 1982
* Late Night with David Letterman 1 April 1982
* Good Morning America 14 April 1982
* The John Davidson Show 15 April 1982
* Hour Magazine 7 May 1982
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 7.19) 15 May 1982
* Late Night with David Letterman 17 May 1982
* Late Night with David Letterman 28 July 1982
* Saturday Night Live (episode # 8.5) 30 October 1982
* Late Night with David Letterman 17 November 1982
* Late Night with David Letterman 7 January 1983
* Late Night with David Letterman 23 February 1983
* Late Night with David Letterman 22 September 1983
* Late Night with David Letterman 17 November 1983
* Rodney Dangerfield: I Can’t Take It No More (As Dr. Vinnie Boombatz) 29 November 1983 …. Guest Appearance
* The Top January 26, 1984 …. Andy’s Last Television Appearance

References

1. ^ He is quoted in The New York Times as saying:

“I am not a comic, I have never told a joke…The comedian’s promise is that he will go out there and make you laugh with him…My only promise is that I will try to entertain you as best I can. I can manipulate people’s reactions. There are different kinds of laughter. Gut laughter is where you don’t have a choice, you’ve got to laugh. Gut laughter doesn’t come from the intellect. And it’s much harder for me to evoke now, because I’m known. They say, ‘Oh wow, Andy Kaufman, he’s a really funny guy.’ But I’m not trying to be funny. I just want to play with their heads.”

2. ^ Bill Zehme, Lost in the Funhouse: The Life and Mind of Andy Kaufman (New York 2001)
3. ^ “”The Real Man on the Moon Talks” by Kaufman’s father”. Andykaufman.jvlnet.com. http://andykaufman.jvlnet.com/realmotm.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-10.
4. ^ See their web page.
5. ^ SNL: The complete first season, 1975-1976. DVD recording.
6. ^ Andy Kaufman at Yahoo! Movies
7. ^ Taxi
8. ^ “Andy Kaufman Oral History”, interviews with Don Steinberg, originally published in short form in GQ Magazine, December 1999.
9. ^ Quoted in Lost in the Funhouse: The Life and Mind of Andy Kaufman by Bill Zehme (2001), p. 6.
10. ^ “Burt Sugarman’s Midnight Special: Featuring Andy Kaufman” (1981)
11. ^ Andy’s Funhouse
12. ^ Kaufman on Fridays.
13. ^ “Andy Kaufman on Fridays from FridaysFan”. Funnyordie.com. http://www.funnyordie.com/videos/544255131b. Retrieved 2010-02-10.
14. ^ Kaufman on SNL
15. ^ “Netflix Online Movie Rentals – Rent DVDs, Classic Films to DVD New Releases”. Netflix.com. http://www.netflix.com/Movie/Andy_Kaufman_The_Midnight_Special/22046279. Retrieved 2010-02-10.
16. ^ Alan Graham (producer). (2008-02-21) (SWF). The Passion of Andy Kaufman. [Archive footage]. Subterranean Cinema. Event occurs at 2:20:00. http://video.google.co.uk/videoplay?docid=-2545402202011032395. Retrieved 2008-03-20.
17. ^ a b Alan Graham (producer). (2008-02-21) (SWF). The Passion of Andy Kaufman. [Archive footage]. Subterranean Cinema. Event occurs at 2:10:55–2:20:33. http://video.google.co.uk/videoplay?docid=-2545402202011032395. Retrieved 2008-03-20.
18. ^ Late Night with David Letterman
19. ^ Tonight Show
20. ^ Midnight Special
21. ^ Merv Griffin Show
22. ^ The Dating Game
23. ^ guest appearances.
24. ^ “Waking Andy Kaufman”. The Village Voice. 9 November 1999. http://radio.villagevoice.com/1999-11-09/long-island-voice/waking-andy-kaufman/4.
25. ^ “BBC online, June 25, 2003″. Bbc.co.uk. http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1043173. Retrieved 2010-02-10.
26. ^ “The Life and Mind of Andy Kaufman”. Andykaufman.jvlnet.com. http://andykaufman.jvlnet.com/aktime.htm. Retrieved 2010-02-10.
27. ^ “California Death Index”. Vitals.rootsweb.com. http://vitals.rootsweb.com/ca/death/search.cgi. Retrieved 2010-02-10.
28. ^ Andy Kaufman Revealed! by Bob Zmuda
29. ^ “Andy Kaufman Revealed!”. New York Times Online:book review. 26 September 1999. http://www.times.com/books/99/09/26/bib/990926.rv103930.html.
30. ^ “Kaufman death certificate on”. Thesmokinggun.com. 1984-05-16. http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/kaufmandeath1.html. Retrieved 2010-02-10.
31. ^ “1981 Burt Sugarman’s Midnight Special TV show DVD”. Netflix.com. http://www.netflix.com/Movie/Andy_Kaufman_The_Midnight_Special/22046279. Retrieved 2010-02-10.

2. Stop in the middle of the walkway
So I was walking through the mall and in front of me where these two ladies just strolling along oblivious to everyone around them, focused on where they could find the next sale on spanks. Then, without warning they just stopped to talk to someone coming in the other direction causing me to bend my body around them to keep from bumping into them. Are people that oblivious to their surroundings, do they not take into account that there are other people in this world besides them and maybe their actions would affect others around them. Come on people get a clue!

1. Chew With their Mouth Open
Ok so we have all been sitting doing work when all of a sudden someone sits next to you chomping on some potato chips or smacking their lips as they eat their lunch. I mean come on people did your parents not teach you that is was rude to chew with your mouth open. How hard is it to put the food in your mouth, close your mouth, and then chew. I have not decided if it’s just because of the fact that most parents are not taking the time to teach their kids basic manors, or if its just as simple as laziness on the part of the chewer to make their mouth stay closed. Either way it’s really annoying and why it comes in at #1.

So now that I have given my top 3 things that people do that are annoying, what are yours?

Benefits of Hypnotherapy for Chronic Pain
Well-controlled experiments have proven that clinical hypnotherapy for pain, called hypno-analgesia, decreases patients’ sensitivity to pain. Hypnotherapy works by enabling patients to alter the psychological components of their experience of pain. Hypnotherapy has proven to be especially beneficial for people living with cancer, fibromyalgia, headaches, backaches, temporal mandibular disorders, and mixed chronic pain.

Hypnotherapy produces significant reductions in ratings of pain, need for sedation or analgesics, nausea and vomiting, and length of stay in hospitals. During a session, a hypnotherapist might tell an arthritis patient that he or she can turn down the experience of pain in a way similar to turning down the volume on a radio. This process returns a sense of control to the patient who might have felt out of control due to the chronic pain. Hypnotherapy generally is more effective than other pain-management interventions, such as education and physical therapy.

How Hypnotherapy Works for Chronic Pain
Although hypnotism may not cure the underlying cause of pain, it usually helps patients manage it. Researchers doing brain scans of chronic pain sufferers while in hypnotic trances found that the patients’ brains showed significantly reduced activity in the area of the brain responsible for the experience of pain. This indicates that hypnosis treatment works because it actually produces a physical effect on the brain. Other studies revealed that hypnotherapy could, at times, be even more effective than other pain relief methods.

The exact way hypnosis works is not yet fully understood. There are, however, several possible ways to explain how hypnotherapy reduces, blocks or eliminates pain. Hypnotherapy may help the brain realize that even though the pain exists, it doesn’t need to include the experience of actually feeling pain. A second possibility is that hypnosis simply redirects the patient’s attention away from the pain. Hypnotherapy might also decrease the actual amount of pain signal that gets relayed from the painful location on the body to the brain.

What Happens During Clinical Hypnotherapy?
Clinical hypnotherapy is performed in the office of a licensed professional. The hypnotherapist will explain what hypnosis is and how it works to reduce pain. During the session, the patient is always in control of his or her responses to the hypnotic suggestions. The hypnotherapist will begin by using a series of relaxation exercises to place the patient in a deeply relaxed, hypnotic mental state. The patient’s heart rate and blood pressure will drop, and his or her brain waves will move into a different pattern.

Once the patient has reached a deep level of consciousness, he or she will be open to suggestions for managing pain that are normally beyond waking consciousness or control. The hypnotherapist will make suggestions for the patient to use to alter his or her perceptions, sensations, behaviors and thoughts to minimize symptoms and the experience of chronic pain. The patient is returned to normal consciousness, and the experience is discussed.

The hypnotherapist can also teach the patient self-hypnosis techniques so the patient can self-treat as needed. Sessions typically take one hour, and the majority of people begin to experience improvements after four to ten sessions. Pre-teen children tend to respond after only one or two visits because they are easily hypnotized.

What Other Considerations Exist?
People respond differently to hypnotherapy. About 10 percent of the population cannot be hypnotized.

Before considering hypnotherapy, be sure to obtain a clear diagnosis from a doctor to understand what is being treated. This can help ensure that pain signals from other sources are not masked before they themselves can be diagnosed. Chronic conditions may require a comprehensive plan that targets other aspects of health besides the pain. The patient may need help with instituting a better diet and an exercise program, and exploring ways to restore range of motion and proper body mechanics.

Clinicians using hypnotherapy need to keep current on other treatments for pain, be willing to consult with other specialists, and integrate various strategies to provide the most enduring and effective relief for chronic pain.

What is Chronic Pain?
Pain that lasts more than three months is considered chronic. The pain may be created by a specific condition, such as cancer, or it can arise even when no apparent reason exists, such as migraine headaches. Chronic pain can be a complex issue, and it seems to solidify neural pathways in the brain. It can become a habit that makes treatment complicated and difficult.

How Can I Find a Hypnotherapist?
Only a few states regulate hypnotherapy. When treating chronic pain, it is best to find a licensed clinical hypnotherapist who is specially trained in both medicine and psychology. The American Psychotherapy and Medical Hypnosis Association provides certificates for licensed medical and mental health professionals who complete a six- to eight-week course. Also, consider members of the American Society of Clinical Hypnosis (ASCH) and the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis.

Additional Resources
American Association of Professional Hypnotherapists
American Pain Foundation
International Certification Board of Clinical Hypnotherapy
Fishman, Scott, and Berger, Lisa. The War on Pain.

There were actually three types of plagues afflicting Europeans during the Black Death. Although they attacked the lungs and shared some common symptoms (swelling lymph nodes in the neck, groin, and armpits that bled and oozed pus, and freckle-like rashes) there were some symptoms that differentiated the two as well. The bubonic plague, the most common type afflicting people was known to cause fever, headaches, nausea, vomiting, and joint pain. The pneumonic plague had a mortality rate of 90%. People developed a fever, a cough, and had blood-tinged sputum which became free-flowing as the infection got worse. The septicemic plague, the rarest, had a 100% mortality rate. It caused fevers and purple skin patches. No matter the type of plague, most people died within eight days of contracting the disease.

For many years, scientists assumed that the plague originated in China or Central Asia, and spread to fleas. These fleas then attached themselves to black rats that stowed themselves away on ships. Once the ships landed, the fleas would have a chance to begin biting and infecting any person, spreading the disease that way. This is supported by the fact that the plague seemed to start in port cities and follow trade routes.

It’s believed the Black Death first reached Europe around 1346. From there, it spread to Western Europe and Africa. Europe was already in dire straights from 1315 to 1317 the Great Famine had hit the country, causing millions of deaths. In the aftermath, the economy was suffering. A typhoid epidemic also emerged as did a pestilence that might have been anthrax in 1318, which targeted sheep and cattle. Although there are very few concrete numbers, scholars estimate that between 30 and 60% of Europe’s population died during the outbreak of this plague, meaning between 25 and 50 million people. The worldwide death toll is believed to be around 75 million people.

Scholars point to either Bristol or Dorset, England, as the first plague hot spot. Wherever it started, it hit during the summer of 1348. Large cities were the places most devastated the cramped, squalid conditions made it remarkably easy for the disease to spread. In London alone, 30,000 people died, halving the population. For the next two years, the disease continued spreading.

There was little doctors could do to stop the plague, especially with medieval medicine being what it was. When a doctor examined a patient and determined that they had the plague, their house would be marked with a red X to warn people away and anyone living in the house healthy or not would be locked in to keep them from spreading the disease. “Dead-carts” would be pushed through the city and people would yell “Bring out your dead!” so the bodies could be taken away to be buried.

By 1350, the pandemic had ended although the disease did not totally disappear. In fact, it would hit England six more times by the end of the 1300s. The Black Death also had a devastating effect on the country though it is credited with helping to bring about the end of feudalism. With so few people available to work the land, wages and prices rose. Laborers were suddenly a valuable commodity and they were treated as such. The economy itself changed to reflect this as many more peasants were able to find work and moved into cities. It also had an effect on the church’s power as many as 40% of England’s priests died from the plague and less qualified people took their place, which resulted in a decline in the church’s influence.

More Bubonic Plague Facts

The Black Death
Onset Of The Black Death
Brief Overview Of The Plague
Middle Ages – The Black Death
Social and Economic Effects of the Plague
The Plague And The Health Renaissance
The Black Plague History And Images
Medicine In The Middle Ages
Impact On Venice

The GPS System was created and realized by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) and was originally based on and run with 24 satellites. It was established in 1973 to reduce the large number of navigation aids and to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems.
Structure

The GPS consists of three parts: the space segment, the control segment, and the user segment. The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, which each GPS receiver uses to calculate its three-dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) plus the current time.[1]

The space segment is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in medium Earth orbit and also includes the boosters required to launch them into orbit. The control segment is composed of a master control station, an alternate master control station, and a host of dedicated and shared ground antennas and monitor stations. The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial, and scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service (see GPS navigation devices).
Applications

GPS has become a widely used aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool for map-making, land surveying, commerce, scientific uses, tracking and surveillance, and hobbies such as geocaching and waymarking. The precise time reference provided by GPS is used in many applications including the scientific study of earthquakes and as a time synchronization source for cellular network protocols.

In addition, GPS has, in the words of the website gps.gov, become a mainstay of transportation systems worldwide, providing navigation for aviation, ground, and maritime operations. Disaster relief and emergency services depend upon GPS for location and timing capabilities in their life-saving missions. The accurate timing provided by GPS facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids. Farmers, surveyors, geologists and countless others perform their work more efficiently, safely, economically, and accurately using the free and open GPS signals.[2]
History

The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio navigation systems, such as LORAN and the Decca Navigator developed in the early 1940s, and used during World War II. In 1956 Friedwardt Winterberg[3] proposed a test of general relativity using accurate atomic clocks placed in orbit in artificial satellites. To achieve accuracy requirements, GPS uses principles of general relativity to correct the satellites’ atomic clocks. Additional inspiration for the GPS came when the Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik in 1957. A team of U.S. scientists led by Dr. Richard B. Kershner were monitoring Sputnik’s radio transmissions. They discovered that, because of the Doppler effect, the frequency of the signal being transmitted by Sputnik was higher as the satellite approached, and lower as it continued away from them. They realized that since they knew their exact location on the globe, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit by measuring the Doppler distortion (see Transit (satellite)).

The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation satellite which proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology that GPS relies upon. In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations,[4] became the first worldwide radio navigation system. However, limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy.

While there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none of those were seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research, development, deployment, and operation for a complex constellation of navigation satellites. However during the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the very existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the US Congress. And this deterrent effect is why GPS was funded. The nuclear triad consisted of the US Navy’s submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with the US Air Force’s strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Considered vital to the nuclear deterrence posture, accurate determination of the SLBM launch position was a force multiplier. Precise navigation would enable US submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions prior to launching their SLBMs.[5] The US Air Force with two-thirds of the nuclear triad also had requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system. The Navy and Air Force were developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the same problem. To increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch platforms so the need to fix the launch position had similarity to the SLBM situation. In 1960, the Air Force proposed a radio-navigation system called MOSAIC (Mobile System for Accurate ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3-D LORAN. A follow-on study called Project 57 was worked in 1963 and it was “in this study that the GPS concept was born.” That same year the concept was pursued as Project 621B, which had “many of the attributes that you now see in GPS”[6] and promised increased accuracy for Air Force bombers as well as ICBMs. Updates from the Navy Transit system were too slow for the high speeds that the Air Force operated at. The Navy Research Laboratory continued advancements with their Timation (Time Navigation) satellites, first launched in 1967, and with the third one in 1974 carrying the first atomic clock put into orbit.[7]

With these parallel developments out of the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could be developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation and SECOR in a multi-service program. Over the Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about 12 military officers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS). It was at this meeting that “the real synthesis that became GPS was created.” Later that year, the DNSS program was named Navstar. With the individual satellites being associated with the name Navstar (as with the predecessors Transit and Timation), a more fully encompassing name was used to identify the constellation of Navstar satellites. This more complete name was Navstar-GPS which was later shortened simply to GPS.[8]

After Korean Air Lines Flight 007, carrying 269 people, was shot down in 1983 after straying into the USSR’s prohibited airspace,[9] in the vicinity of Sakhalin and Moneron Islands, President Ronald Reagan issued a directive making GPS freely available for civilian use, once it was sufficiently developed, as a common good.[10] The first satellite was launched in 1989, and the 24th and last satellite was launched in 1994.

Initially, the highest quality signal was reserved for military use, and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded (“Selective Availability”, SA). This changed with U.S. President Bill Clinton ordering Selective Availability turned off at midnight May 1, 2000, improving the precision of civilian GPS from 300 meters (about 1000 feet) to 20 meters (about 65 feet). The U.S. military by then had the ability to deny GPS service to potential adversaries on a regional basis.[11]

Period Satellite launches

* In 1972, the U.S. Air Force Central Inertial Guidance Test Facility (Holloman AFB), conducted developmental flight tests of two prototype GPS receivers over White Sands Missile Range, using ground-based pseudo-satellites.
* In 1978, the first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched.
* In 1983, after Soviet interceptor aircraft shot down the civilian airliner KAL 007 that strayed into prohibited airspace due to navigational errors, killing all 269 people on board, U.S. President Ronald Reagan announced that the GPS would be made available for civilian uses once it was completed.[14][15]
* By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites had been launched to validate the concept.
* On February 14, 1989, the first modern Block-II satellite was launched.
* In 1992, the 2nd Space Wing, which originally managed the system, was de-activated and replaced by the 50th Space Wing.
* By December 1993, the GPS achieved initial operational capability.[16]
* By January 17, 1994 a complete constellation of 24 satellites was in orbit.
* Full Operational Capability was declared by NAVSTAR in April 1995.
* In 1996, recognizing the importance of GPS to civilian users as well as military users, U.S. President Bill Clinton issued a policy directive[17] declaring GPS to be a dual-use system and establishing an Interagency GPS Executive Board to manage it as a national asset.
* In 1998, U.S. Vice President Al Gore announced plans to upgrade GPS with two new civilian signals for enhanced user accuracy and reliability, particularly with respect to aviation safety and in 2000 the U.S. Congress authorized the effort, referring to it as GPS III.
* In 1998, GPS technology was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall of Fame.
* On May 2, 2000 “Selective Availability” was discontinued as a result of the 1996 executive order, allowing users to receive a non-degraded signal globally.
* In 2004, the United States Government signed an agreement with the European Community establishing cooperation related to GPS and Europe’s planned Galileo system.
* In 2004, U.S. President George W. Bush updated the national policy and replaced the executive board with the National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing.[18]
* November 2004, QUALCOMM announced successful tests of assisted GPS for mobile phones.[19]
* In 2005, the first modernized GPS satellite was launched and began transmitting a second civilian signal (L2C) for enhanced user performance.
* On September 14, 2007, the aging mainframe-based Ground Segment Control System was transitioned to the new Architecture Evolution Plan.[20]
* The most recent launch was on May 28, 2010.[21] The oldest GPS satellite still in operation was launched on November 26, 1990, and became operational on December 10, 1990.[22]
* On May 19, 2009, the U. S. Government Accountability Office issued a report warning that some GPS satellites could fail as soon as 2010.[23]
* On May 21, 2009, the Air Force Space Command allayed fears of GPS failure saying “There’s only a small risk we will not continue to exceed our performance standard.”[24]
* On January 11, 2010, an update of ground control systems caused a software incompatibly with 8000 to 10000 military receivers manufactured by a division of Trimble Navigation Limited of Sunnyvale, Calif.[25]

Basic concept of GPS

A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by the GPS satellites high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages which include

* the time the message was transmitted
* precise orbital information (the ephemeris)
* the general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac).

The receiver utilizes the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each message and computes the distances to each satellite. These distances along with the satellites’ locations are used with the possible aid of trilateration, depending on which algorithm is used, to compute the position of the receiver. This position is then displayed, perhaps with a moving map display or latitude and longitude; elevation information may be included. Many GPS units show derived information such as direction and speed, calculated from position changes.

Three satellites might seem enough to solve for position, since space has three dimensions and a position near the Earth’s surface can be assumed. However, even a very small clock error multiplied by the very large speed of light[26]—the speed at which satellite signals propagate—results in a large positional error. Therefore receivers use four or more satellites to solve for the receiver’s location and time. The very accurately computed time is effectively hidden by most GPS applications, which use only the location. A few specialized GPS applications do however use the time; these include time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations.

Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. (For example, a ship or plane may have known elevation.) Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions (such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer) to give a less accurate (degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible (see,[27] Chapters 7 and 8 of,[28] and [29]).
Position calculation introduction

To provide an introductory description of how a GPS receiver works, errors will be ignored in this section. Using messages received from a minimum of four visible satellites, a GPS receiver is able to determine the times sent and then the satellite positions corresponding to these times sent. The x, y, and z components of position, and the time sent, are designated as \scriptstyle\left[x_i,\, y_i,\, z_i,\, t_i\right] where the subscript i is the satellite number and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4. Knowing the indicated time the message was received \scriptstyle\ tr, the GPS receiver can compute the transit time of the message as \scriptstyle\left (tr-t_i\right ) . Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled or pseudorange, \scriptstyle p_i can be computed as \scriptstyle\left (tr-t_i\right )c.

A satellite’s position and pseudorange define a sphere, centered on the satellite with radius equal to the pseudorange. The position of the receiver is somewhere on the surface of this sphere. Thus with four satellites, the indicated position of the GPS receiver is at or near the intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver would be at a precise intersection of the four surfaces.

If the surfaces of two spheres intersect at more than one point, they intersect in a circle. The article trilateration shows this mathematically. A figure, Two Sphere Surfaces Intersecting in a Circle, is shown below.
Two sphere surfaces intersecting in a circle

The intersection of a third spherical surface with the first two will be its intersection with that circle; in most cases of practical interest, this means they intersect at two points.[30] Another figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not disk) at Two Points, illustrates the intersection. The two intersections are marked with dots. Again the article trilateration clearly shows this mathematically.
Surface of sphere Intersecting a circle (not disk) at two points

For automobiles and other near-earth-vehicles, the correct position of the GPS receiver is the intersection closest to the Earth’s surface.[31] For space vehicles, the intersection farthest from Earth may be the correct one.

The correct position for the GPS receiver is also the intersection closest to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite.
Correcting a GPS receiver’s clock

The method of calculating position for the case of no errors has been explained. One of the most significant error sources is the GPS receiver’s clock. Because of the very large value of the speed of light, c, the estimated distances from the GPS receiver to the satellites, the pseudoranges, are very sensitive to errors in the GPS receiver clock. This suggests that an extremely accurate and expensive clock is required for the GPS receiver to work. On the other hand, manufacturers prefer to build inexpensive GPS receivers for mass markets. The solution for this dilemma is based on the way sphere surfaces intersect in the GPS problem.
Diagram depicting satellite 4, sphere, p4, r4, and da

It is likely that the surfaces of the three spheres intersect, since the circle of intersection of the first two spheres is normally quite large, and thus the third sphere surface is likely to intersect this large circle. It is very unlikely that the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite will intersect either of the two points of intersection of the first three, since any clock error could cause it to miss intersecting a point. However, the distance from the valid estimate of GPS receiver position to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite can be used to compute a clock correction. Let \scriptstyle r_4 denote the distance from the valid estimate of GPS receiver position to the fourth satellite and let \scriptstyle p_4 denote the pseudorange of the fourth satellite. Let \scriptstyle da \,=\, r_4 \,-\, p_4. \scriptstyle da is the distance from the computed GPS receiver position to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite. Thus the quotient, \scriptstyle b \,=\, da / c\ , provides an estimate of

(correct time) ? (time indicated by the receiver’s on-board clock),

and the GPS receiver clock can be advanced if \scriptstyle b is positive or delayed if \scriptstyle b is negative. However, it should be kept in mind that a less simple function of \scriptstyle da may be needed to estimate the time error in an iterative algorithm as discussed in the Navigation section.
System segmentation
Unlaunched GPS satellite on display at the San Diego Aerospace museum

The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment (SS), a control segment (CS), and a user segment (US).[32]
Space segment
See also: GPS satellite and List of GPS satellite launches
A visual example of the GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating. Notice how the number of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth’s surface, in this example at 45°N, changes with time.

The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three circular orbital planes,[33] but this was modified to six planes with four satellites each.[34] The orbital planes are centered on the Earth, not rotating with respect to the distant stars.[35] The six planes have approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to Earth’s equator) and are separated by 60° right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit’s intersection).[36] The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from almost everywhere on Earth’s surface.[37]

Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 kilometers (about 12,550 miles or 10,900 nautical miles; orbital radius of approximately 26,600 km (about 16,500 mi or 14,400 NM)), each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each day.[38] This was very helpful during development, since even with just four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones.

As of March 2008[update],[39] there are 31 actively broadcasting satellites in the GPS constellation, and two older, retired from active service satellites kept in the constellation as orbital spares. The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements. With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a nonuniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and availability of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail.[40] About eight satellites are visible from any point on the ground at any one time (see animation at right).
Control segment

The control segment is composed of

1. a master control station (MCS),
2. an alternate master control station,
3. four dedicated ground antennas and
4. six dedicated monitor stations.

The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground antennas (for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Air Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC.[41] The tracking information is sent to the Air Force Space Command’s MCS at Schriever Air Force Base 25 km (16 miles) ESE of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the United States Air Force (USAF). Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN) ground antennas (GPS dedicated ground antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape Canaveral). These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite’s internal orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter which uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other inputs.[42]

Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change the orbit of a satellite, the satellite must be marked unhealthy, so receivers will not use it in their calculation. Then the maneuver can be carried out, and the resulting orbit tracked from the ground. Then the new ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite marked healthy again.
User segment
GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and watches, to dedicated devices such as those shown here from manufacturers Trimble, Garmin and Leica (left to right).

The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service. In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels: this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or five, this has progressively increased over the years so that, as of 2007[update], receivers typically have between 12 and 20 channels.[43]
A typical OEM GPS receiver module measuring 15×17 mm.

GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM SC-104 format. This is typically in the form of an RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed. Data is actually sent at a much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM. Receivers with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM data. As of 2006, even low-cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) receivers.
A typical GPS receiver with integrated antenna.

Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA 0183 protocol, or the newer and less widely used NMEA 2000.[44] Although these protocols are officially defined by the NMEA,[45] references to these protocols have been compiled from public records, allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating intellectual property laws. Other proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the SiRF and MTK protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial connection, USB, or Bluetooth.
Further information: GPS navigation device
Communication

The navigational signals transmitted by the GPS satellites encode a variety of information including satellite positions, the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network. These signals are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the network. Two different encodings are used, a public encoding that enables lower resolution navigation, and an encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military.
Message format
GPS broadcast signal

Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation message at a rate of 50 bits per second (see bitrate). The first part of the message encodes the week number and the time within the week,[46] as well as the data about the health of the satellite. The second part of the message, the ephemeris, provides the precise orbit for the satellite. The last part of the message, the almanac, contains coarse orbit and status information for all satellites in the network as well as data related to error correction.

Each complete message is composed of 30-second frames, distinct groupings of 1,500 bits of information. Each frame is further subdivided into 5 subframes of length 6 seconds and with 300 bits each. Each subframe contains 10 words of 30 bits with length 0.6 seconds each. Each 30 second frame begins precisely on the minute or half minute as indicated by the atomic clock on each satellite.[47]

The first two words of every subframe provide synchronization data allowing the receiver to recognize the beginning of the subframe and identify which subframe is being transmitted. The remainder of the data in each subframe contains the actual data. Subframe 1 describes the satellite clock and its relationship to GPS time. Subframes 2 and 3 provide the ephemeris data, giving the satellite’s own precise orbit. Subframes 4 and 5 provide the almanac data, giving a coarse description of the orbits for all satellites in the network, data to allow for correction of distortions due to the atmosphere, and data for relating GPS time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC).

All satellites broadcast at the same frequencies. Signals are encoded using code division multiple access (CDMA) allowing messages from individual satellites to be distinguished from each other based on unique encodings for each satellite (which the receiver must be aware of). Two distinct types of CDMA encodings are used: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, which is accessible by the general public, and the precise (P) code, that is encrypted so that only the U.S. military can access it.

The almanac consists of coarse orbit and status information for each satellite in the constellation, an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS derived time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Each frame contains a part of the almanac (in subframes 4 and 5) and the complete almanac is transmitted by each satellite in 25 frames total (requiring 12.5 minutes).[48] The almanac serves several purposes. The first is to assist in the acquisition of satellites at power-up by allowing the receiver to generate a list of visible satellites based on stored position and time, while an ephemeris from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using that satellite. In older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long delays before providing a valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow process. Advances in hardware have made the acquisition process much faster, so not having an almanac is no longer an issue. The second purpose is for relating time derived from the GPS (called GPS time) to the international time standard of UTC. Finally, the almanac allows a single-frequency receiver to correct for ionospheric error by using a global ionospheric model. The corrections are not as accurate as augmentation systems like WAAS or dual-frequency receivers. However, it is often better than no correction, since ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single-frequency GPS receiver. Each satellite transmits not only its own ephemeris, but transmits an almanac for all satellites.
Data updates

The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 6 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The time needed to acquire the ephemeris is becoming a significant element of the delay to first position fix, because, as the hardware becomes more capable, the time to lock onto the satellite signals shrinks, but the ephemeris data requires 30 seconds (worst case) before it is received, due to the low data transmission rate.

The almanac is updated typically every 24 hours. Additionally data for a few weeks following is uploaded in case of transmission updates which delay data upload.
Satellite frequencies

All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique where the low-bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the actual message data. The C/A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 million chips per second. The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modulated by the P code.[50] The P code can be encrypted as a so-called P(Y) code which is only available to military equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the C/A and P(Y) codes impart the precise time-of-day to the user.

Demodulation and decoding

Since all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, there is a need to separate the signals after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a unique binary sequence known as a Gold code, and the signals are decoded, after demodulation, using modulo 2 addition of the Gold codes corresponding to satellites n1 through nk, where k is the number of channels in the GPS receiver and n1 through nk are the PRN identifiers of the satellites. Each satellite’s PRN identifier is unique and in the range from 1 through 32.[51] The results of these modulo 2 additions are the 50 bit/s navigation messages from satellites n1 through nk. The Gold codes used in GPS are a sequence of 1,023 bits with a period of one millisecond. These Gold codes are highly mutually orthogonal, so that it is unlikely that one satellite signal will be misinterpreted as another. As well, the Gold codes have good auto-correlation properties.[52]

There are 1,025 different Gold codes of length 1,023 bits, but only 32 are used. These Gold codes are quite often referred to as pseudo random noise since they contain no data and are said to look like random sequences[53]. However, this may be misleading since they are actually deterministic sequences.

If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks which satellites to listen for by their PRNs. If the almanac information is not in memory, the receiver enters a search mode and cycles through the PRN numbers until a lock is obtained on one of the satellites. To obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed line of sight from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver can then acquire the almanac and determine the satellites it should listen for. As it detects each satellite’s signal, it identifies it by its distinct C/A code pattern.

The receiver uses the C/A Gold code with the same PRN number as the satellite to compute an offset, O, that generates the best correlation. The offset, O, is computed in a trial and error manner. The 1,023 bits of the satellite PRN signal are compared with the receiver PRN signal. If correlation is not achieved, the 1,023 bits of the receiver’s internally generated PRN code are shifted by one bit relative to the satellite’s PRN code and the signals are again compared. This process is repeated until correlation is achieved or all 1,023 possible cases have been tried.[54] If all 1,023 cases have been tried without achieving correlation, the frequency oscillator is offset to the next value and the process is repeated.

Since the carrier frequency received can vary due to Doppler shift, the points where received PRN sequences begin may not differ from O by an exact integral number of milliseconds. Because of this, carrier frequency tracking along with PRN code tracking are used to determine when the received satellite’s PRN code begins.[54] Unlike the earlier computation of offset in which trials of all 1,023 offsets could potentially be required, the tracking to maintain lock usually requires shifting of half a pulse width or less. To perform this tracking, the receiver observes two quantities, phase error and received frequency offset. The correlation of the received PRN code with respect to the receiver generated PRN code is computed to determine if the bits of the two signals are misaligned. Comparisons with correlation computed with receiver generated PRN code shifted half a pulse width early and half a pulse width late are used to estimate adjustment required.[55] The amount of adjustment required for maximum correlation is used in estimating phase error. Received frequency offset from the frequency generated by the receiver provides an estimate of phase rate error. The command for the frequency generator and any further PRN code shifting required are computed as a function of the phase error and the phase rate error in accordance with the control law used. The Doppler velocity is computed as a function of the frequency offset from the carrier nominal frequency. The Doppler velocity is the velocity component along the line of sight of the receiver relative to the satellite.

As the receiver continues to read successive PRN sequences, it will encounter a sudden change in the phase of the 1,023 bit received PRN signal. This indicates the beginning of a data bit of the navigation message.[56] This enables the receiver to begin reading the 20 millisecond bits of the navigation message. Each subframe of the navigation frame begins with a Telemetry Word which enables the receiver to detect the beginning of a subframe and determine the receiver clock time at which the navigation subframe begins. Also each subframe of the navigation frame is identified by bits in the handover word (HOW) thereby enabling the receiver to determine which subframe.[57][58] There can be a delay of up to 30 seconds before the first estimate of position because of the need to read the ephemeris data before computing the intersections of sphere surfaces.

After a subframe has been read and interpreted, the time the next subframe was sent can be calculated through the use of the clock correction data and the HOW. The receiver knows the receiver clock time of when the beginning of the next subframe was received from detection of the Telemetry Word thereby enabling computation of the transit time and thus the pseudorange. The receiver is potentially capable of getting a new pseudorange measurement at the beginning of each subframe or every 6 seconds.

Then the orbital position data, or ephemeris, from the navigation message is used to calculate precisely where the satellite was at the start of the message. A more sensitive receiver will potentially acquire the ephemeris data more quickly than a less sensitive receiver, especially in a noisy environment.[59]

This process is repeated for each satellite to which the receiver is listening.

Development of the GPS equations

To describe the basic concept of how a GPS receiver works, the errors are at first ignored. Using messages received from four satellites, the GPS receiver is able to determine the satellite positions and time sent. The x, y, and z components of position and the time sent are designated as \ \left [x_i, y_i, z_i, t_i\right ] where the subscript i denotes which satellite and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4. Knowing the indicated time the message was received \ \ tr_i, the GPS receiver can compute the transit time of the message as \ \left (tr_i-t_i\right ) . Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled, \ \ p_i can be computed as \ \left (tr_i-t_i\right )c . Knowing the distance from GPS receiver to a satellite and the position of a satellite implies that the GPS receiver is on the surface of a sphere centered at the position of a satellite. Thus the indicated position of the GPS receiver is at or near the intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver will be at an intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. Excluding the unrealistic case (for GPS purposes) of two coincident spheres, the surfaces of two spheres if they intersect in more than one point intersect in a circle as depicted in the illustration below. Two points at which the surfaces of the spheres intersect are clearly marked on the figure. The distance between these two points is the diameter of the circle of intersection.
Two sphere surfaces intersecting in a circle

This can be seen more clearly by considering how a side view of the intersecting spheres would look. This view would look exactly the same as the figure because of the symmetry of the spheres. And in fact a view from any horizontal direction would look exactly the same. Therefore the surfaces of the two spheres actually do intersect in a circle.

The article, trilateration, shows mathematically how the equation for this circle of intersection is determined. A circle and sphere surface in most cases of practical interest intersect at two points, although it is conceivable that they could intersect in 0 or 1 point. We are here excluding the unrealistic case for GPS purposes of three colinear (lying on same straight line) sphere centers. Another figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not disk) at Two Points, is shown below to aid in visualizing this intersection. Again trilateration clearly shows this mathematically. The correct position of the GPS receiver is the one that is closest to the fourth sphere. This paragraph has described the basic concept of GPS while ignoring errors. The next problem is how to process the messages when errors are present.

Surface of a sphere intersecting a circle (i.e., the edge of a disk) at two points

Let \ \ b denote the clock error or bias, the amount by which the receiver’s clock is slow. The GPS receiver has four unknowns, the three components of GPS receiver position and the clock bias \ \left [x, y, z, b\right ]. The equation of the sphere surfaces are given by: (x-x_i)^2 + (y-y_i)^2 + (z-z_i)^2 = \bigl([tr_i + b - t_i]c\bigr)^2,

\;i=1,2,3,4

Another useful form of these equations is in terms of the pseudoranges, which are simply the ranges approximated based on GPS receiver clock’s indicated (i.e., uncorrected) time so that p_i = \left (tr_i – t_i \right )c. Then the equations becomes:

p_i = \sqrt{(x-x_i)^2 + (y-y_i)^2 + (z-z_i)^2}- bc, \;i=1,2,3,4.

Methods of solution of the GPS equations

* Bancroft’s method is perhaps the most important method of solving the GPS equations since it involves an algebraic as opposed to numerical method.[60] The method requires requires at least four satellites but more can be used.

Two numerical methods of computing GPS receiver position and clock bias are (1) by using trilateration [61][62] and one dimensional numerical root finding and (2) multidimensional Newton-Raphson calculations. These two methods along with their advantages are discussed.

* The receiver can solve by trilateration [61][62] and one dimensional numerical root finding.[63] This method involves using trilateration to determine the intersection of the surfaces of three spheres. It is clearly shown in trilateration that the surfaces of three spheres intersect in 0, 1, or 2 points. In the usual case of two intersections, the solution which is nearest the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite is chosen. The surface of the earth can also sometimes be used instead, especially in the case of civilian GPS receivers since it is illegal in the United States to track vehicles of more than 60,000 feet (18,000 m) in altitude. Let da denote the signed distance from the receiver position indicated by trilateration to the fourth satellite (i.e. da = r4 – p4) as defined in the section “Correcting a GPS receiver’s clock”. The distance, da, is a function of the clock correction since when the clock is corrected, the computed time intervals of transmission of the satellite messages to the receiver are changed and thus the pseudoranges are changed. Thus we can use the notation, da(correction) to denote this function. The problem we have is to find the value of correction such that

da\left(correction\right) = 0.

This is the familiar problem of finding the zeroes of a one dimensional non-linear function of a scalar variable. There are many numerical methods for solving this type of problem such as those found in the chapter on root finding in [63]. These methods involve iteration. One advantage of this method is that it involves one dimensional as opposed to multidimensional numerical root finding.

* The receiver can utilize a multidimensional root finding method such as the Newton-Raphson method.[63] Linearize around an approximate solution, say \ \left [x^{(k)}, y^{(k)}, z^{(k)}, b^{(k)}\right ] from iteration k, then solve four linear equations derived from the quadratic equations above to obtain \left [x^{(k+1)}, y^{(k+1)}, z^{(k+1)}, b^{(k+1)}\right ]. This use of the Newton-Raphson method is an advantage since it is more rapidly convergent than other methods of numerical root finding.[63] A disadvantage of this multidimensional root finding method as compared to single dimensional root findiing is that according to,[63] “There are no good general methods for solving systems of more than one nonlinear equations.” For a more detailed description of the mathematics see Multidimensional Newton Raphson.

Another possible method is solving for the intersection of hyperboloids determined by the time difference of signals received from satellites utilizing multilateration. This is really not a method of solving the GPS equations but it is included since some have reported that it is being used.

* When more than four satellites are available, a decision must be made on whether to use the four best or more than four taking into considerations such factors as number of channels, processing capability, and geometric dilution of precision. Using more than four results in an over-determined system of equations with no unique solution, which must be solved by least-squares or a similar technique. If all visible satellites are used, the results are always at least as good as using the four best, and usually better. Also the errors in results can be estimated through the residuals.[64] With each combination of four or more satellites, a geometric dilution of precision (GDOP) factor can be calculated, based on the relative sky directions of the satellites used.[64][65] As more satellites are picked up, pseudoranges from more combinations of four satellites can be processed to add more estimates to the location and clock offset. The receiver then determines which combinations to use and how to calculate the estimated position by determining the weighted average of these positions and clock offsets. After the final location and time are calculated, the location is expressed in a specific coordinate system such as latitude and longitude, using the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a local system specific to a country.[66]
* Finally, results from other positioning systems such as GLONASS or the upcoming Galileo can be used in the fit, or used to double check the result. (By design, these systems use the same bands, so much of the receiver circuitry can be shared, though the decoding is different.)

The position calculated by a GPS receiver requires the current time, the position of the satellite and the measured delay of the received signal. The position accuracy is primarily dependent on the satellite position and signal delay.

To measure the delay, the receiver compares the bit sequence received from the satellite with an internally generated version. By comparing the rising and trailing edges of the bit transitions, modern electronics can measure signal offset to within about one percent of a bit pulse width, \frac{0.01}{(1.023 \times 10^6 /\mathrm{s})}, or approximately 10 nanoseconds for the C/A code. Since GPS signals propagate at the speed of light, this represents an error of about 3 meters.

This component of position accuracy can be improved by a factor of 10 using the higher-chiprate P(Y) signal. Assuming the same one percent of bit pulse width accuracy, the high-frequency P(Y) signal results in an accuracy of \frac {(0.01 \times 300,000,000\ \mathrm{m/s})} {(10.23 \times 10^6 / \mathrm{s})} or about 30 centimeters.
Atmospheric effects

Inconsistencies of atmospheric conditions affect the speed of the GPS signals as they pass through the Earth’s atmosphere, especially the ionosphere. Correcting these errors is a significant challenge to improving GPS position accuracy. These effects are smallest when the satellite is directly overhead and become greater for satellites nearer the horizon since the path through the atmosphere is longer (see airmass). Once the receiver’s approximate location is known, a mathematical model can be used to estimate and compensate for these errors.

Ionospheric delay of a microwave signal depends on its frequency. This phenomenon is known as dispersion and can be calculated from measurements of delays for two or more frequency bands, allowing delays at other frequencies to be estimated.[67] Some military and expensive survey-grade civilian receivers calculate atmospheric dispersion from the different delays in the L1 and L2 frequencies, and apply a more precise correction. This can be done in civilian receivers without decrypting the P(Y) signal carried on L2, by tracking the carrier wave instead of the modulated code. To facilitate this on lower cost receivers, a new civilian code signal on L2, called L2C, was added to the Block IIR-M satellites, which was first launched in 2005. It allows a direct comparison of the L1 and L2 signals using the coded signal instead of the carrier wave.

The effects of the ionosphere generally change slowly, and can be averaged over time. Those for any particular geographical area can be easily calculated by comparing the GPS-measured position to a known surveyed location. This correction is also valid for other receivers in the same general location. Several systems send this information over radio or other links to allow L1-only receivers to make ionospheric corrections. The ionospheric data are transmitted via satellite in Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) such as WAAS (available in North America and Hawaii), EGNOS (Europe and Asia) or MSAS (Japan), which transmits it on the GPS frequency using a special pseudo-random noise sequence (PRN), so only one receiver and antenna are required.

Humidity also causes a variable delay, resulting in errors similar to ionospheric delay, but occurring in the troposphere. This effect both is more localized and changes more quickly than ionospheric effects, and is not frequency dependent. These traits make precise measurement and compensation of humidity errors more difficult than ionospheric effects.[citation needed]

Changes in receiver altitude also change the delay, due to the signal passing through less of the atmosphere at higher elevations. Since the GPS receiver computes its approximate altitude this error is relatively simple to correct, either by applying a function regression or correlating margin of atmospheric error to ambient pressure using a barometric altimeter.[citation needed]
Multipath effects

GPS signals can also be affected by multipath issues, where the radio signals reflect off surrounding terrain; buildings, canyon walls, hard ground, etc. These delayed signals can cause inaccuracy. A variety of techniques, most notably narrow correlator spacing, have been developed to mitigate multipath errors. For long delay multipath, the receiver itself can recognize the wayward signal and discard it. To address shorter delay multipath from the signal reflecting off the ground, specialized antennas (e.g., a choke ring antenna) may be used to reduce the signal power as received by the antenna. Short delay reflections are harder to filter out because they interfere with the true signal, causing effects almost indistinguishable from routine fluctuations in atmospheric delay.

Multipath effects are much less severe in moving vehicles. When the GPS antenna is moving, the false solutions using reflected signals quickly fail to converge and only the direct signals result in stable solutions.
Ephemeris and clock errors

While the ephemeris data is transmitted every 30 seconds, the information itself may be up to two hours old. If a fast time to first fix (TTFF) is needed, it is possible to upload a valid ephemeris to a receiver, and in addition to setting the time, a position fix can be obtained in under ten seconds. It is feasible to put such ephemeris data on the web so it can be loaded into mobile GPS devices.[68] See also Assisted GPS.

The satellite’s atomic clocks experience noise and clock drift errors. The navigation message contains corrections for these errors and estimates of the accuracy of the atomic clock. However, they are based on observations and may not indicate the clock’s current state.

These problems tend to be very small, but may add up to a few meters (tens of feet) of inaccuracy.[69]

For very precise positioning (e.g., in geodesy), these effects can be eliminated by differential GPS: the simultaneous use of two or more receivers at several survey points. In the 1990s when receivers were quite expensive, some methods of quasi-differential GPS were developed, using only one receiver but reoccupation of measuring points. At the TU Vienna the method was named qGPS and adequate software of post processing was developed.
Geometric dilution of precision computation (GDOP)

The concept of geometric dilution of precision was introduced in the section, error sources and analysis. Computations were provided to show how PDOP was used and how it affected the receiver position error standard deviation.

When visible GPS satellites are close together in the sky (i.e., small angular separation), the DOP values are high; when far apart, the DOP values are low. Conceptually, satellites that are close together cannot provide as much information as satellites that are widely separated. Low DOP values represent a better GPS positional accuracy due to the wider angular separation between the satellites used to calculate GPS receiver position. HDOP, VDOP, PDOP and TDOP are respectively Horizontal, Vertical, Position (3-D) and Time Dilution of Precision.

The horizontal dilution of precision, HDOP = \sqrt{d_x^2 + d_y^2}, and the vertical dilution of precision, \ VDOP = \sqrt{d_{z}^2}, are both dependent on the coordinate system used. To correspond to the local horizon plane and the local vertical, x, y, and z should denote positions in either a North, East, Down coordinate system or a South, East, Up coordinate system.
Derivation of DOP equations

The equations for computing the geometric dilution of precision terms have been described in the previous section. This section describes the derivation of these equations. The method used here is similar to that used in “Global Positioning System (preview) by Parkinson and Spiker”

Consider the position error vector, \mathbf{e}, defined as the vector from the intersection of the four sphere surfaces corresponding to the pseudoranges to the true position of the receiver. \mathbf{e} = e_x\hat{x} + e_y\hat{y} + e_z\hat{z} where bold denotes a vector and \hat{x}, \hat{y}, and \hat{z} denote unit vectors along the x, y, and z axes respectively. Let \ e_t denote the time error, the true time minus the receiver indicated time. Assume that the mean value of the three components of \mathbf {e} and \ e_t are zero.

Selective availability

GPS includes a (currently disabled) feature called Selective Availability (SA) that adds intentional, time varying errors of up to 100 meters (328 ft) to the publicly available navigation signals. This was intended to deny an enemy the use of civilian GPS receivers for precision weapon guidance.

SA errors are actually pseudorandom, generated by a cryptographic algorithm from a classified seed key available only to authorized users (the U.S. military, its allies and a few other users, mostly government) with a special military GPS receiver. Mere possession of the receiver is insufficient; it still needs the tightly controlled daily key.

Before it was turned off on May 1, 2000, typical SA errors were about 50 m (164 ft) horizontally and about 100 m (328 ft) vertically.[72] Because SA affects every GPS receiver in a given area almost equally, a fixed station with an accurately known position can measure the SA error values and transmit them to the local GPS receivers so they may correct their position fixes. This is called Differential GPS or DGPS. DGPS also corrects for several other important sources of GPS errors, particularly ionospheric delay, so it continues to be widely used even though SA has been turned off. The ineffectiveness of SA in the face of widely available DGPS was a common argument for turning off SA, and this was finally done by order of President Clinton in 2000.

Another restriction on GPS, antispoofing, remains on. This encrypts the P-code so that it cannot be mimicked by an enemy transmitter sending false information. Few civilian receivers have ever used the P-code, and the accuracy attainable with the public C/A code is so much better than originally expected (especially with DGPS) that the antispoof policy has relatively little effect on most civilian users. Turning off antispoof would primarily benefit surveyors and some scientists who need extremely precise positions for experiments such as tracking the motion of a tectonic plate.

DGPS services are widely available from both commercial and government sources. The latter include WAAS and the U.S. Coast Guard’s network of LF marine navigation beacons. The accuracy of the corrections depends on the distance between the user and the DGPS receiver. As the distance increases, the errors at the two sites will not correlate as well, resulting in less precise differential corrections.

During the 1990-91 Gulf War, the shortage of military GPS units caused many troops and their families to buy readily available civilian units. This significantly impeded the U.S. military’s own battlefield use of GPS, so the military made the decision to turn off SA for the duration of the war.

In the 1990s, the FAA started pressuring the military to turn off SA permanently. This would save the FAA millions of dollars every year in maintenance of their own radio navigation systems. The amount of error added was “set to zero”[73] at midnight on May 1, 2000 following an announcement by U.S. President Bill Clinton, allowing users access to the error-free L1 signal. Per the directive, the induced error of SA was changed to add no error to the public signals (C/A code). Clinton’s executive order required SA to be set to zero by 2006; it happened in 2000 once the U.S. military developed a new system that provides the ability to deny GPS (and other navigation services) to hostile forces in a specific area of crisis without affecting the rest of the world or its own military systems.[73]

Selective Availability is still a system capability of GPS, and could, in theory, be reintroduced at any time. In practice, in view of the hazards and costs this would induce for U.S. and foreign shipping, it is unlikely to be reintroduced, and various government agencies, including the FAA,[74] have stated that it is not intended to be reintroduced.

One interesting side effect of the Selective Availability hardware is the capability to add corrections to the outgoing signal of the GPS cesium and rubidium atomic clocks to an accuracy of approximately 2 × 10?13 This represented a significant improvement over the raw accuracy of the clocks.[citation needed]

On 19 September 2007, the United States Department of Defense announced that future GPS III satellites will not be capable of implementing SA,[75] eventually making the policy permanent.[76]

Relativity

A number of sources of error exist due to relativistic effects[77] that would render the system useless if uncorrected. Three relativistic effects are the time dilation, gravitational frequency shift, and eccentricity effects. For example, the relativistic time slowing due to the speed of the satellite of about 1 part in 1010, the gravitational time dilation that makes a satellite run about 5 parts in 1010 faster than an Earth based clock, and the Sagnac effect due to rotation relative to receivers on Earth. These topics are examined below, one at a time.
Special and general relativity

According to the theory of relativity, due to their constant movement and height relative to the Earth-centered, non-rotating approximately inertial reference frame, the clocks on the satellites are affected by their speed. Special relativity predicts that the frequency of the atomic clocks moving at GPS orbital speeds will tick more slowly than stationary ground clocks by a factor of \frac{v^{2}}{2c^{2}}\approx 10 ^{-10}, or result in a delay of about 7 ?s/day, where the orbital velocity is v = 4 km/s, and c = the speed of light. The time dilation effect has been measured and verified using the GPS.

The effect of gravitational frequency shift on the GPS due to general relativity is that a clock closer to a massive object will be slower than a clock farther away. Applied to the GPS, the receivers are much closer to Earth than the satellites, causing the GPS clocks to be faster by a factor of 5×10^(-10), or about 45.9 ?s/day. This gravitational frequency shift is noticeable.

When combining the time dilation and gravitational frequency shift, the discrepancy is about 38 microseconds per day, a difference of 4.465 parts in 1010.[78] Without correction, errors in position determination of roughly 10 km/day would accumulate. In addition the elliptical, rather than perfectly circular, satellite orbits cause the time dilation and gravitational frequency shift effects to vary with time. This eccentricity effect causes the clock rate difference between a GPS satellite and a receiver to increase or decrease depending on the velocity orbital altitude[clarification needed] of the satellite.

To compensate for the discrepancy, the frequency standard on board each satellite is given a rate offset prior to launch, making it run slightly slower than the desired frequency on Earth; specifically, at 10.22999999543 MHz instead of 10.23 MHz.[79] Since the atomic clocks on board the GPS satellites are precisely tuned, it makes the system a practical engineering application of the scientific theory of relativity in a real-world environment.[80] Placing atomic clocks on artificial satellites to test Einstein’s general theory was proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg in 1955.[81]

Sagnac distortion

GPS observation processing must also compensate for the Sagnac effect. The GPS time scale is defined in an inertial system but observations are processed in an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed (co-rotating) system, a system in which simultaneity is not uniquely defined. A Lorentz transformation is thus applied to convert from the inertial system to the ECEF system. The resulting signal run time correction has opposite algebraic signs for satellites in the Eastern and Western celestial hemispheres. Ignoring this effect will produce an east-west error on the order of hundreds of nanoseconds, or tens of meters in position.[82]
Natural sources of interference

Since GPS signals at terrestrial receivers tend to be relatively weak, natural radio signals or scattering of the GPS signals can desensitize the receiver, making acquiring and tracking the satellite signals difficult or impossible.

Space weather degrades GPS operation in two ways, direct interference by solar radio burst noise in the same frequency band[83] or by scattering of the GPS radio signal in ionospheric irregularities referred to as scintillation.[84] Both forms of degradation follow the 11 year solar cycle and are a maximum at sunspot maximum although they can occur at anytime. Solar radio bursts are associated with solar flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) [85] and their impact can affect reception over the half of the Earth facing the sun. Scintillation occurs most frequently at tropical latitudes where it is a night time phenomenon. It occurs less frequently at high latitudes or mid-latitudes where magnetic storms can lead to scintillation.[86] In addition to producing scintillation, magnetic storms can produce strong ionospheric gradients that degrade the accuracy of SBAS systems.[87]
Artificial sources of interference

In automotive GPS receivers, metallic features in windshields,[88] such as defrosters, or car window tinting films[89] can act as a Faraday cage, degrading reception just inside the car.

Man-made EMI (electromagnetic interference) can also disrupt or jam GPS signals. In one well-documented case it was impossible to receive GPS signals in the entire harbor of Moss Landing, California due to unintentional jamming caused by malfunctioning TV antenna preamplifiers.[90][91] Intentional jamming is also possible. Generally, stronger signals can interfere with GPS receivers when they are within radio range or line of sight. In 2002 a detailed description of how to build a short-range GPS L1 C/A jammer was published in the online magazine Phrack.[92]

The U.S. government believes that such jammers were used occasionally during the 2001 war in Afghanistan, and the U.S. military claims to have destroyed six GPS jammers during the Iraq War, including one that was destroyed with a GPS-guided bomb.[93] A GPS jammer is relatively easy to detect and locate, making it an attractive target for anti-radiation missiles. The UK Ministry of Defence tested a jamming system in the UK’s West Country on 7 and 8 June 2007.[94]

Some countries allow the use of GPS repeaters to allow the reception of GPS signals indoors and in obscured locations; however, under EU and UK laws, the use of these is prohibited as the signals can cause interference to other GPS receivers that receive data from both GPS satellites and the repeater.

Due to the potential for both natural and man-made noise, numerous techniques continue to be developed to deal with the interference. The first is to not rely on GPS as a sole source. According to John Ruley, “IFR pilots should have a fallback plan in case of a GPS malfunction”.[95] Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is a feature included in some receivers, designed to provide a warning to the user if jamming or another problem is detected. The U.S. military has also deployed since 2004 their Selective Availability / Anti-Spoofing Module (SAASM) in the Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR).[96] In demonstration videos the DAGR was shown to detect jamming and maintain its lock on the encrypted GPS signals during interference which caused civilian receivers to lose lock.
Accuracy enhancement and surveying

Augmentation

Augmentation methods of improving accuracy rely on external information being integrated into the calculation process. There are many such systems in place and they are generally named or described based on how the GPS sensor receives the information. Some systems transmit additional information about sources of error (such as clock drift, ephemeris, or ionospheric delay), others provide direct measurements of how much the signal was off in the past, while a third group provide additional navigational or vehicle information to be integrated in the calculation process.

Examples of augmentation systems include the Wide Area Augmentation System, Differential GPS, Inertial Navigation Systems and Assisted GPS.
Precise monitoring

The accuracy of a calculation can also be improved through precise monitoring and measuring of the existing GPS signals in additional or alternate ways.

After SA, which has been turned off, the largest error in GPS is usually the unpredictable delay through the ionosphere. The spacecraft broadcast ionospheric model parameters, but errors remain. This is one reason the GPS spacecraft transmit on at least two frequencies, L1 and L2. Ionospheric delay is a well-defined function of frequency and the total electron content (TEC) along the path, so measuring the arrival time difference between the frequencies determines TEC and thus the precise ionospheric delay at each frequency.

Receivers with decryption keys can decode the P(Y)-code transmitted on both L1 and L2. However, these keys are reserved for the military and authorized agencies and are not available to the public. Without keys, it is still possible to use a codeless technique to compare the P(Y) codes on L1 and L2 to gain much of the same error information. However, this technique is slow, so it is currently limited to specialized surveying equipment. In the future, additional civilian codes are expected to be transmitted on the L2 and L5 frequencies (see GPS modernization). Then all users will be able to perform dual-frequency measurements and directly compute ionospheric delay errors.

A second form of precise monitoring is called Carrier-Phase Enhancement (CPGPS). The error, which this corrects, arises because the pulse transition of the PRN is not instantaneous, and thus the correlation (satellite-receiver sequence matching) operation is imperfect. The CPGPS approach utilizes the L1 carrier wave, which has a period of \frac{1 sec}{1575.42 * 10^6} = 0.63475 \ nanoseconds \approx 1 \ nanosecond \ which is about one-thousandth of the C/A Gold code bit period of \frac{1 sec}{1023 * 10^3} = 977.5 \ nanosecond \ \approx 1000 \ nanosecond \ , to act as an additional clock signal and resolve the uncertainty. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts to between 2 and 3 meters (6 to 10 ft) of ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1% of perfect transition reduces this error to 3 centimeters (1 inch) of ambiguity. By eliminating this source of error, CPGPS coupled with DGPS normally realizes between 20 and 30 centimeters (8 to 12 inches) of absolute accuracy.

Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP) is another approach for a precise GPS-based positioning system. In this approach, determination of range signal can be resolved to a precision of less than 10 centimeters (4 in). This is done by resolving the number of cycles in which the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver. This can be accomplished by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques via statistical tests—possibly with processing in real-time (real-time kinematic positioning, RTK).
Timekeeping

While most clocks are synchronized to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time. The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections which are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in 1980, but has since diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant offset with International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI – GPS = 19 seconds). Periodic corrections are performed on the on-board clocks to correct relativistic effects and keep them synchronized with ground clocks.

The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC, which as of 2009 is 15 seconds due to the leap second added to UTC December 31, 2008. Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific timezone values. New GPS units may not show the correct UTC time until after receiving the UTC offset message. The GPS-UTC offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds (eight bits) which, given the current rate of change of the Earth’s rotation (with one leap second introduced approximately every 18 months), should be sufficient to last until approximately the year 2300.

As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is expressed as a week number and a seconds-into-week number. The week number is transmitted as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6, 1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS date signal. To address this concern the modernized GPS navigation message uses a 13-bit field, which only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until the year 2137 (157 years after GPS week zero).
Carrier phase tracking (surveying)

Utilizing the navigation message to measure pseudorange has been discussed. Another method that is used in GPS surveying applications is carrier phase tracking. The period of the carrier frequency times the speed of light gives the wave length, which is about 0.19 meters for the L1 carrier. With a 1% of wave length accuracy in detecting the leading edge, this component of pseudorange error might be as low as 2 millimeters. This compares to 3 meters for the C/A code and 0.3 meters for the P code.

However, this 2 millimeter accuracy requires measuring the total phase, that is the total number of wave lengths plus the fractional wavelength. This requires specially equipped receivers. This method has many applications in the field of surveying.

We now describe a method which could potentially be used to estimate the position of receiver 2 given the position of receiver 1 using triple differencing followed by numerical root finding, and a mathematical technique called least squares. A detailed discussion of the errors is omitted in order to avoid detracting from the description of the methodology. In this description differences are taken in the order of differencing between satellites, differencing between receivers, and differencing between epochs. This should not be construed to mean that this is the only order which can be used. Indeed other orders of taking differences are equally valid.

Triple differencing can be performed by taking the difference of double differencing performed at time \ \ t_2 with that performed at time \ \ t_1 . This will eliminate the ambiguity associated with the integral number of wave lengths in carrier phase provided this ambiguity does not change with time. Thus the triple difference result has eliminated all or practically all clock bias errors and the integer ambiguity. Also errors associated with atmospheric delay and satellite ephemeris have been significantly reduced. This triple difference is:

Triple difference results can be used to estimate unknown variables. For example if the position of receiver 1 is known but the position of receiver 2 unknown, it may be possible to estimate the position of receiver 2 using numerical root finding and least squares. Triple difference results for three independent time pairs quite possibly will be sufficient to solve for the three components of position of receiver 2. This may require the use of a numerical procedure such as one of those found in the chapter on root finding and nonlinear sets of equations in Numerical Recipes.[63] Also see Preview of Root Finding. To use such a numerical method, an initial approximation of the position of receiver 2 is required. This initial value could probably be provided by a position approximation based on the navigation message and the intersection of sphere surfaces. Although multidimensional numerical root finding can have problems, this disadvantage may be overcome with this good initial estimate. This procedure using three time pairs and a fairly good initial value followed by iteration will result in one observed triple difference result for receiver 2 position. Greater accuracy may be obtained by processing triple difference results for additional sets of three independent time pairs. This will result in an over determined system with multiple solutions. To get estimates for an over determined system, least squares can be used. The least squares procedure determines the position of receiver 2 which best fits the observed triple difference results for receiver 2 positions under the criterion of minimizing the sum of the squares.
Applications

The Global Positioning System, while originally a military project, is considered a dual-use technology, meaning it has significant military and civilian applications.
Military

The military applications of GPS include:

* Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives, even in the dark or in unfamiliar territory, and to coordinate the movement of troops and supplies. Commanders use the Commanders Digital Assistant and lower ranks use the Soldier Digital Assistant.[97][98][99][100]
* Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential ground and air targets before they are flagged as hostile.[citation needed] These weapon systems pass GPS co-ordinates of targets to precision-guided munitions to allow them to engage the targets accurately. Military aircraft, particularly in air-to-ground roles, use GPS to find targets (for example, gun camera video from AH-1 Cobras in Iraq show GPS co-ordinates that can be looked up in Google Earth).
* Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various military weapons including ICBMs, cruise missiles and precision-guided munitions. Artillery projectiles with embedded GPS receivers able to withstand accelerations of 12 000 g or about 118 km/s2 have been developed for use in 155 mm howitzers.[101]
* Search and Rescue: Downed pilots can be located faster if they know their position.
* Reconnaissance and Map Creation: The military use GPS extensively to aid mapping and reconnaissance.
* The GPS satellites also carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors consisting of an optical sensor (Y-sensor), an X-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) sensor (W-sensor) which form a major portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System.[102][103]

Civilian

Many civilian applications benefit from GPS signals, using one or more of three basic components of the GPS: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer.

The ability to determine the receiver’s absolute location allows GPS receivers to perform as a surveying tool or as an aid to navigation. The capacity to determine relative movement enables a receiver to calculate local velocity and orientation, useful in vessels or observations of the Earth. Being able to synchronize clocks to exacting standards enables time transfer, which is critical in large communication and observation systems. An example is CDMA digital cellular telephony: each base station has a GPS timing receiver to synchronize its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell handoff and support hybrid GPS/CDMA positioning of mobile telephones for emergency calls and other applications. GPS enables researchers to explore the Earth environment including the atmosphere, ionosphere and gravity field. GPS survey equipment has revolutionized tectonics by directly measuring the motion of faults in earthquakes.

The U.S. Government controls the export of some civilian receivers. All GPS receivers capable of functioning above 18 km (60,000 ft) altitude and 515 m/s (1,000 knots) [104] are classified as munitions (weapons) for which U.S. State Department export licenses are required. These limits are clearly chosen to prevent use of a receiver in a ballistic missile; they would not prevent use in a cruise missile since their altitudes and speeds are similar to those of ordinary aircraft.

This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency and the C/A code and cannot correct for SA, etc.

Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition. Different vendors have interpreted these limitations differently. The rule specifies operation above 18 km and 515 m/s, but some receivers stop operating at 18 km even when stationary. This has caused problems with some amateur radio balloon launches as they regularly reach 30 km (100,000 feet).

GPS tours are another example of civilian use. The GPS is used to determine which content to display; for instance, when approaching a point of interest, information about it is displayed.

GPS functionality is supported by many mobile phones. The first handsets with integrated GPS were launched in the late 1990s and became available to consumers on networks such as those run by Nextel, Sprint and Verizon in 2002 in response to U.S. FCC mandates for handset positioning in emergency calls. Capabilities for access by third-party software developers to these features were provided more slowly, with Nextel opening up those APIs upon launch to any developer, Sprint following in 2006, and Verizon soon thereafter.

Vehicle tracking systems and GPS Pet Tracking devices use the same network of satellites to locate a vehicle or a pet. These devices are normally attached to the vehicle, or the collar of the pet, at all times. A GPS system will then offer 24/7 tracking via mobile or Internet updates. Such systems may use either a dedicated radio frequency or a cellphone network to transmit location information.[105]

Awards

Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize for 2003:

* Ivan Getting, emeritus president of The Aerospace Corporation and engineer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, established the basis for GPS, improving on the World War II land-based radio system called LORAN (Long-range Radio Aid to Navigation).
* Bradford Parkinson, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at Stanford University, conceived the present satellite-based system in the early 1960s and developed it in conjunction with the U.S. Air Force. Parkinson served twenty-one years in the Air Force, from 1957 to 1978, and retired with the rank of colonel.

One GPS developer, Roger L. Easton, received the National Medal of Technology on February 13, 2006 at the White House.[106]

On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the Global Positioning System Team as winners of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the most prestigious aviation award in the United States. This team consists of researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the U.S. Air Force, the Aerospace Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation accompanying the presentation of the trophy honors the GPS Team “for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago.”
Other systems
Main article: Global Navigation Satellite System

Other satellite navigation systems in use or various states of development include:

* European Union Galileo – a global system being developed by the European Union and other partner countries, planned to be operational by 2014
* People’s Republic of China Beidou – People’s Republic of China’s regional system, covering Asia and the West Pacific[107]
* People’s Republic of China COMPASS – People’s Republic of China’s global system, planned to be operational by 2020[108][109]
* Russia GLONASS – Russia’s global navigation system
* India IRNSS – India’s regional navigation system, planned to be operational by 2012, covering India and Northern Indian Ocean[110]
* Japan QZSS – Japanese proposed regional system covering only Japan

Notes

1. ^ [1]
2. ^ [2]
3. ^ Astronautica Acta II, 25 (1956)
4. ^ Jerry Proc. “Omega”. Jproc.ca. http://www.jproc.ca/hyperbolic/omega.html. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
5. ^ “Why Did the Department of Defense Develop GPS?”. Trimble Navigation Ltd. http://www.trimble.com/gps/whygps.shtml#0. Retrieved 2010-01-13.
6. ^ “Charting a Course Toward Global Navigation”. The Aerospace Corporation. http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/summer2002/01.html. Retrieved 2010-01-14.
7. ^ “A Guide To The Global Positioning System (GPS) – GPS Timeline”. Radio Shack. http://support.radioshack.com/support_tutorials/gps/gps_tmline.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-14.
8. ^ Michael Russell Rip, James M. Hasik (2002). The Precision Revolution: GPS and the Future of Aerial Warfare. Naval Institute Press. p. 65. ISBN 1557509735. http://books.google.com/books?id=mB9W3H90KDUC. Retrieved 2010-01-14.
9. ^ “ICAO Completes Fact-Finding Investigation”. International Civil Aviation Organization. http://www.icao.int/cgi/goto_m.pl?icao/en/trivia/kal_flight_007.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
10. ^ “United States Updates Global Positioning System Technology”. America.gov. February 3, 2006. http://www.america.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&y=2006&m=February&x=20060203125928lcnirellep0.5061609.
11. ^ “GPS & Selective Availability Q&A”. [3]. http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/GPS_SA_Event_QAs.pdf. Retrieved 2010-05-28.
12. ^ GPS Wing Reaches GPS III IBR Milestone in InsideGNSS November 10, 2008
13. ^ GPS almanac
14. ^ Dietrich Schroeer, Mirco Elena (2000). Technology Transfer. Ashgate. p. 80. ISBN 075462045X. http://books.google.com/books?lr=&id=I7JRAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
15. ^ Michael Russell Rip, James M. Hasik (2002). The Precision Revolution: GPS and the Future of Aerial Warfare. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1557509735. http://books.google.com/books?lr=&id=_wpUAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
16. ^ United States Department of Defense. Announcement of Initial Operational Capability[dead link] Announcement of Initial Operational Capability at the Wayback Machine (archived November 16, 2003). December 8, 1993.
17. ^ National Archives and Records Administration. U.S. Global Positioning System Policy. March 29, 1996.
18. ^ National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing
19. ^ “3g.co.uk”. 3g.co.uk. 2004-11-10. http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/November2004/8641.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
20. ^ losangeles.af.mil
21. ^ “United States Naval Observatory (USNO) GPS Constellation Status”. ftp://tycho.usno.navy.mil/pub/gps/gpstd.txt. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
22. ^ United States Naval Observatory. GPS Constellation Status. Retrieved December 20, 2008.
23. ^ Johnson, Bobbie (May 19, 2009). “GPS system ‘close to breakdown’”. The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/may/19/gps-close-to-breakdown. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
24. ^ Coursey, David (May 21, 2009). “Air Force Responds to GPS Outage Concerns”. ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/AheadoftheCurve/story?id=7647002&page=1. Retrieved 2009-05-22.
25. ^ Air Force GPS Problem: Glitch Shows How Much U.S. Military Relies On GPS
26. ^ GPS signals travel at the speed of light, so computing the distance for a given elapsed time is almost a straightforward calculation. However, the speed of light varies slightly between the partial vacuum of space and the atmosphere. A receiver can approximate these effects and produce a reasonable estimate. Once a rough position is determined, some receivers carefully compute the amount of atmosphere the signal traveled through and adjust the distance accordingly.
27. ^ Georg zur Bonsen, Daniel Ammann, Michael Ammann, Etienne Favey, Pascal Flammant (2005-04-01). “Continuous Navigation Combining GPS with Sensor-Based Dead Reckoning”. GPS World. http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=154870&pageID=6.
28. ^ “NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction” (PDF). US Government. http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/gpsuser/gpsuser.pdf.
29. ^ “GPS Support Notes” (PDF). January 19, 2007. http://www.navmanwireless.com/uploads/EK/C8/EKC8zb1ITsNwDqWcqLQxiQ/Support_Notes_GPS_OperatingParameters.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
30. ^ It is also possible for a circle and a spherical surface to intersect at zero points, one point, or in the very special case in which the centers of the three spheres are colinear (i.e., all three on the same straight line) the sphere surface could intersect the entire circumference of the circle.
31. ^ The two intersections are symmetrical about the plane containing the three satellites. Excluding the exceptional case in which the three satellites are all in a plane containing the center of the earth, one intersection will be nearer the earth than the other.
32. ^ John Pike. “GPS III Operational Control Segment (OCX)”. Globalsecurity.org. http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/gps_3-ocx.htm. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
33. ^ Daly, P.. “Navstar GPS and GLONASS: global satellite navigation systems”. IEEE. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel1/2219/7072/00285510.pdf?arnumber=285510.
34. ^ Dana, Peter H. (1996-08-08). “GPS Orbital Planes” (GIF). http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gif/oplanes.gif.
35. ^ What the Global Positioning System Tells Us about Relativity. Retrieved January 2, 2007.
36. ^ GPS Overview from the NAVSTAR Joint Program Office. Retrieved December 15, 2006.
37. ^ “USCG Navcen: GPS Frequently Asked Questions”. http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/faq/gpsfaq.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-31.
38. ^ Agnew, D.C. and Larson, K.M. (2007). “Finding the repeat times of the GPS constellation”. GPS Solutions (Springer) 11 (1): 71–76. doi:10.1007/s10291-006-0038-4. This article from author’s web site, with minor correction.
39. ^ Tis-pf-nisws. “Nanu 2008030″. http://cgls.uscg.mil/pipermail/gps/2008-March/001625.html.
40. ^ Massatt, Paul; Wayne Brady (Summer 2002). “Optimizing performance through constellation management”. Crosslink: 17–21. http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/summer2002/index.html.
41. ^ US Coast Guard General GPS News 9-9-05
42. ^ USNO NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. Retrieved May 14, 2006.
43. ^ Though there are many receiver manufacturers, they almost all use one of the chipsets produced for this purpose. An example: “GPS Receiver Chip Performance Survey”. GPS Technology Reviews. http://gpstekreviews.com/2007/04/14/gps-receiver-chip-performance-survey/.
44. ^ NMEA NMEA 2000
45. ^ “Publications and Standards from the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA)”. National Marine Electronics Association. http://www.nmea.org/pub/index.html. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
46. ^ time-of-week
47. ^ Satellite message format
48. ^ “Interface Specification IS-GPS-200, Revision D: Navstar GPS Space Segment/Navigation User Interfaces” (PDF). Navstar GPS Joint Program Office. http://www.losangeles.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070803-059.pdf. Page 103.
49. ^ [4]. Delta IV finally launches with GPS IIF SV-1 following scrubs NASA Spaceflight.com. May 27 2010.
50. ^ How GPS works. Konowa.de (2005).
51. ^ “GPS Almanacs, NANUS, and Ops Advisories (including archives)”. GPS Almanac Information. US Coast Guard. http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/almanacs.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-09.
52. ^ “George, M., Hamid, M., and Miller A. Gold Code Generators in Virtex DevicesPDF (126 KB)
53. ^ “GPS – explained (Signals)”
54. ^ a b “”How a GPS Receiver Gets a Lock”". Gpsinformation.net. http://gpsinformation.net/main/gpslock.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
55. ^ “NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction” (PDF). US Government. http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/gpsuser/gpsuser.pdf. Section 1.4.2.4.
56. ^ “NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction” (PDF). US Government. http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/gpsuser/gpsuser.pdf. Section 1.4.2.5.
57. ^ “NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction” (PDF). US Government. http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/gpsuser/gpsuser.pdf. Section 1.4.2.6.
58. ^ “Essentials of Satellite Navigation Compendium”
59. ^ “AN02 Network Assistance”. http://www.navsync.com/notes2.html. Retrieved 2007-09-10.
60. ^ Global Positioning Systems
61. ^ a b Position Determination with GPS. Konowa.de (2005).
62. ^ a b How GPS Receivers Work at How Stuff Works
63. ^ a b c d e f Press, Flannery, Tekolsky, and Vetterling 1986, Numerical Recipes, The Art of Scientific Computing (Cambridge University Press).
64. ^ a b Yang Yong and Miao Lingjuan (2004-07-06). “GDOP results in all-in-view positioning and in four optimum satellites positioning with GPS PRN codes ranging”. Position Location and Navigation Symposium, 2004. PLANS 2004. pp. 723–727. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpls/abs_all.jsp?arnumber=1309065.
65. ^ Peter H. Dana. “Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP) and Visibility”. University of Colorado at Boulder. http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html#Gdop. Retrieved 2008-07-07.
66. ^ Peter H. Dana. “Receiver Position, Velocity, and Time”. University of Colorado at Boulder. http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html#PosVelTime. Retrieved 2008-07-07.
67. ^ The same principle, and the math behind it, can be found in descriptions of pulsar timing by astronomers.
68. ^ SNT080408. “Ephemeris Server Example”. Tdc.co.uk. http://www.tdc.co.uk/index.php?key=ephemeris. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
69. ^ “Unit 1 – Introduction to GPS”. http://seismo.berkeley.edu/~battag/GAMITwrkshp/lecturenotes/unit1/unit1.html#3.
70. ^ Parkinson; Spilker. The global positioning system. http://books.google.com/books?id=lvI1a5J_4ewC.
71. ^ ?esky. “Global Positioning System – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia”. En.wikipedia.org. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System#multi_nr. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
72. ^ Grewal, Mohinder S.; Weill, Lawrence Randolph; Andrews, Angus P. (2001), Global positioning systems, inertial navigation, and integration, John Wiley and Sons, p. 103, ISBN 047135032X, 9780471350323, http://books.google.be/books?id=ZM7muB8Y35wC , Chapter 5, p. 103
73. ^ a b “Statement by the President regarding the United States’ Decision to Stop Degrading Global Positioning System Accuracy”. Office of Science and Technology Policy. May 1, 2000. http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/statement.html. Retrieved 2009-02-02.
74. ^ “GNSS – Frequently Asked Questions – GPS: Will SA ever be turned back on?”. FAA. June 13, 2007. http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navservices/gnss/faq/gps/index.cfm#ad3. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
75. ^ “DoD Permanently Discontinues Procurement Of Global Positioning System Selective Availability”. DefenseLink. September 18, 2007. http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=11335. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
76. ^ “Selective Availability”. National space-based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Executive Committee. http://pnt.gov/public/sa/. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
77. ^ Stephen Webb (2004). Out of this world: colliding universes, branes, strings, and other wild ideas of modern physics. Springer. p. 32. ISBN 0387029303. http://books.google.com/books?id=LzQcsSCdeLgC&pg=PA32.
78. ^ Rizos, Chris. University of New South Wales. GPS Satellite Signals. 1999.
79. ^ The Global Positioning System by Robert A. Nelson Via Satellite, November 1999
80. ^ Pogge, Richard W.; “Real-World Relativity: The GPS Navigation System”. Retrieved 25 January 2008.
81. ^ “Astronautica Acta II, 25 (1956).”. 1956-08-10. http://bourabai.kz/winter/satelliten.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-23.
82. ^ Ashby, Neil Relativity and GPS. Physics Today, May 2002.
83. ^ Cerruti, A., P. M. Kintner, D. E. Gary, A. J. Mannucci, R. F. Meyer, P. H. Doherty, and A. J. Coster (2008), Effect of intense December 2006 solar radio bursts on GPS receivers, Space Weather, doi:10.1029/2007SW000375, October 19, 2008
84. ^ Aarons, Jules and Basu, Santimay, Ionospheric amplitude and phase fluctuations at the GPS frequencies, Proceedings of ION GPS, v 2, 1994, p 1569-1578
85. ^ S. Mancuso and J. C. Raymond, “Coronal transients and metric type II radio bursts. I. Effects of geometry, 2004, Astronomy and Astrophysics, v.413, p.363-371′
86. ^ Ledvina, B. M., J. J. Makela, and P. M. Kintner (2002), First observations of intense GPS L1 amplitude scintillations at midlatitude, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(14), 1659, doi:10.1029/2002GL014770
87. ^ Tom Diehl, Solar Flares Hit the Earth- WAAS Bends but Does Not Break, SatNav News, volume 23, June 2004
88. ^ “I-PASS Mounting for Vehicles with Special Windshield Features”. http://www.illinoistollway.com/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/TW_CONTENT_REPOSITORY/TW_CR_IPASS/LPT-SPECIALWINDSHIELDLIST.PDF.
89. ^ “3M Automotive Films”. http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en_US/WF/3MWindowFilms/Products/ProductCatalog/?PC_7_RJH9U5230GE3E02LECFTDQG0V7_nid=9928QS9MGHbeT4DCJBL6BVgl. . Note that the ‘Color Stable’ films are specifically described as not interfering with satellite signals.
90. ^ The Hunt for RFI. GPS World. 1 January 2003.
91. ^ “EMC compliance club “banana skins” column 222″. Compliance-club.com. http://www.compliance-club.com/archive/bananaskins/201-225.asp. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
92. ^ Low Cost and Portable GPS Jammer. Phrack issue 0x3c (60), article 13. Published December 28, 2002.
93. ^ American Forces Press Service. Centcom charts progress. March 25, 2003.
94. ^ “MoD’s tests will send satnav haywire so take a road atlas”. The Daily Mail. 2007-06-06. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-460279/MoDs-tests-send-satnav-haywire-road-atlas.html.
95. ^ Ruley, John. AVweb. GPS jamming. February 12, 2003.
96. ^ US Army DAGR page
97. ^ Commanders Digital Assistant explanation and photo[dead link]
98. ^ “Latest version Commanders Digital Assistant” (PDF). http://peosoldier.army.mil/factsheets/SWAR_LW_CDA.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
99. ^ Soldier Digital Assistant explanation and photo[dead link]
100. ^ Sinha, Vandana (2003-07-24). “Commanders and Soldiers’ GPS-receivers”. Gcn.com. http://www.gcn.com/print/22_20/22893-1.html. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
101. ^ “XM982 Excalibur Precision Guided Extended Range Artillery Projectile”. GlobalSecurity.org. 2007-05-29. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/m982-155.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-26.
102. ^ Sandia National Laboratory’s Nonproliferation programs and arms control technology.
103. ^ Dr. Dennis D. McCrady. “The GPS Burst Detector W-Sensor”. Sandia National Laboratories. http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/10176800-S2tU7w/native/10176800.pdf.
104. ^ Arms Control Association.Missile Technology Control Regime. Retrieved May 17, 2006.
105. ^ Spotlight GPS pet locator
106. ^ United States Naval Research Laboratory. National Medal of Technology for GPS. November 21, 2005
107. ^ Beidou coverage
108. ^ Beidou satellite navigation system to cover whole world in 2020
109. ^ New York Times
110. ^ “ASM, News on GIS, GNSS, spatial information, remote sensing, mapping and surveying technologies for Asia”. Asmmag.com. http://www.asmmag.com/news/india-to-launch-1st-irnss-satellite-by-december. Retrieved 2009-10-13.

Production process

Unlike its sister event MTV Video Music Awards, the MTV Movie Awards were taped and then broadcast a few days later. The entire production was taped in a completely different order than what the MTV viewing audience saw. For example, the show’s host would tape all his/her monologues and introductions at one time, and all the musical acts would perform one after the other. Celebrities would often only appear at the live taping for the announcement of their award category, and members of the general audience fill their vacant seats during the other times. Through clever editing, MTV was able to present to its viewing audience an awards show which appears to be taped in live sequence, with celebrities sticking around for the whole show. This method of production allowed foul language to be edited from the show and also is more convenient for celebrities. The actual live taping aired same-day on pay-per-view channels in most metropolitan cities around the world. Some awards telecasts had also been shown in television syndication. However, in 2007, this changed, as MTV and Survivor producer Mark Burnett announced the ’07 edition would be broadcast live on MTV for the first time on June 3, 2007 in Los Angeles.

Current award categories

* Best Movie
* Best Performance (usually separated into Male and Female categories)
* Best Breakthrough Performance (sometimes separated into Male and Female categories)
* Best Villain
* Best Comedic Performance
* Best Kiss
* Best Fight
* Best WTF Moment

Past award categories

* Most Desirable Male (1992–1996)
* Most Desirable Female (1992–1996)
* Best On-Screen Duo (1992–2006; changed to Best On-Screen Team in 2001)
* Best Action Sequence (1992–2005)
* Best New Filmmaker (1992–2002)
* MTV Movie Award for Best Dance Sequence (1995, 1998)
* Best Cameo (2001–2002, 2004)
* Best Dressed (2001–2002)
* MTV Movie Award for Best Line (2001–2002)
* Best Virtual Performance (2003)
* Best Frightened Performance (2005–2006)
* Best Video Game Based on a Movie (2005)
* Best Hero (2006)
* Sexiest Performance (2006)
* Best Summer Movie You Haven’t Seen Yet (2007)
* Best Summer Movie So Far (2008)

Lifetime Achievement Award/MTV Generation Award

MTV has awarded at least three fictional characters their version of the Academy Honorary Award: Godzilla, Jason Voorhees, and Chewbacca. Jason was awarded the honor in 1992. Godzilla was awarded it in 1996, and Chewbacca followed in receiving the award the following year. The category existed as a spoof award through 1997, where other recipients included Jackie Chan and Richard Roundtree. In 1998, Clint Howard was the last person given the award. The award was retired in 1998, but reemerged seven years later as the MTV Generation Award; Tom Cruise in 2005, Jim Carrey in 2006, Mike Myers in 2007, Adam Sandler in 2008, Ben Stiller in 2009 and Sandra Bullock in 2010.

Why It’s So Powerful
Favorable feedback does more than just flatter. “It validates accomplishments, but it also validates your relationship by showing that you get what’s important to each other,” says Michele Marsh, PhD, a clinical director for the Council for Relationships in Philadelphia.
Plus, talking to your guy about what occurred lets him relive it a bit, only this time he’ll associate the positive rush with you. The reverse response is also telling. If you’re not stoked by what your guy considers a win, it conveys that you may be jealous, threatened, or just not interested. That may be why couples in the study who weren’t thrilled by each other’s good fortune were more likely to break up down the line.
MORE: 5 Surprising Ways You’re Sabotaging Your Relationship

Show That You’re Psyched
Some victories are easy to identify, like a new job, but tiny triumphs are worth touting too. Give him emotional applause when he mentions getting a compliment, like post-project praise from his boss. Also, appreciate how he deals with annoying situations. “Interpersonal conflicts can be extra stressful for guys, so hearing that they handled one well can be very rewarding,” says Marsh. To make your response resonate beyond a pat “congrats,” ask for details (“How did you find out?”) or reaffirm how hard he worked on something (“Your hours of studying really paid off!”). Another way to escalate his excitement is to point out a specific trait of his that played a part (“I’m not surprised—you’re so tenacious!”). “Acknowledging his participation in the larger picture shows another level of understanding,” says Gable. Not doing so could sabotage things.

Get Him to Boost You
You deserve kudos too. If your guy isn’t effusive about your achievements, it could be that he doesn’t know how important his support is. So clue him in like this: When something big is brewing, give him notice, like by counting down the days. Or just say, “Something great happened, and I want to celebrate it with you.” That lets him know it’s a big deal. When he does share a success, let him know the next day that you appreciated him being so happy for you. “If you say he did something right, he’ll remember that and be more likely to repeat it,” says Marsh. Just avoid appearing needy, since most guys hate that.

Source:http://shine.yahoo.com/channel/sex/master-this-habit-to-keep-your-relationships-healthy-1458993/

The best known D-Day is June 6, 1944 — the day of the Normandy landings — initiating the Western Allied effort to liberate mainland Europe from Nazi occupation during World War II. However, many other invasions and operations had a designated D-Day, both before and after that operation.[2]

The terms D-Day and H-Hour are used for the day and hour on which a combat attack or operation is to be initiated. They designate the day and hour of the operation when the day and hour have not yet been determined, or where secrecy is essential. For a given operation, the same D-Day and H-Hour apply for all units participating in it.

When used in combination with numbers, and plus or minus signs, these terms indicate the point of time preceding or following a specific action. Thus, H?3 means 3 hours before H-Hour, and D+3 means 3 days after D-Day.

Planning papers for large-scale operations are made up in detail long before specific dates are set. Thus, orders are issued for the various steps to be carried out on the D-Day or H-Hour minus or plus a certain number of days, hours, or minutes. At the appropriate time, a subsequent order is issued that states the actual day and times.

In spacecraft launchings, NASA utilizes the term ‘T-Time’ for the timing of the launch sequence down to the second, as in the expression “T minus 10 seconds and counting” for their countdown clock.

When referencing a local time zone, “Z-8″ (“zulu minus eight”) refers to Universal Co-ordinated Time (formerly Greenwich Mean Time) minus 8 hours, or 8 hours behind UTC. “Z+10″ means 10 hours ahead of or earlier than UTC. This is because the time zone at zero degrees longitude is designated by the letter Z, which is phonetically designated as ‘zulu’, there being 24 principal time zones world wide, each designated by a distinct letter of the roman alphabet. Thus, for example, Vancouver Canada local time is 1 o’clock in the morning when it is 9 o’clock in London UK, since Pacific Standard Time is Z-8 (9-8 = 1 in this example).

History
Official U.S. Twelfth Army situation map for 2400 hours, 6 June 1944.

The earliest use of these terms by the U.S. Army that the Center of Military History has been able to find was during World War I. In Field Order Number 9, First Army, American Expeditionary Forces, dated 7 September 1918: “The First Army will attack at H hour on D day with the object of forcing the evacuation of the St. Mihiel Salient.”

D-Day for the invasion of Normandy by the Allies was originally set for June 5, 1944, but bad weather and heavy seas caused Gen. Dwight D Eisenhower to delay until June 6 and that date has been popularly referred to ever since by the short title “D-Day”. Because of the connotation with the invasion of Normandy, planners of later military operations sometimes avoided the term to prevent confusion. For example, Douglas MacArthur’s invasion of Leyte began on “A-Day”, and the invasion of Okinawa began on “L-Day”. The Allies proposed invasions of Japan that would have begun on “X-Day” and “Y-Day”.

1. ^ “D-Day”. The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2005. pp. 220. ISBN 0-19-280666-1.
2. ^ Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.

The Normandy landings were the landing operations of the Allied invasion of Normandy, also known as Operation Neptune and Operation Overlord, during World War II. The landings commenced on Tuesday, 6 June 1944 (D-Day), beginning at 6:30 AM British Double Summer Time (UTC+2). In planning, D-Day was the term used for the day of actual landing, which was dependent on final approval.

The assault was conducted in two phases: an air assault landing of 24,000 American, British, Canadian and Free French airborne troops shortly after midnight, and an amphibious landing of Allied infantry and armoured divisions on the coast of France commencing at 6:30 AM. There were also subsidiary ‘attacks’ mounted under the codenames Operation Glimmer and Operation Taxable to distract the German forces from the real landing areas.[4]

The operation was the largest amphibious invasion of all time, with over 160,000[5] troops landing on 6 June 1944. 195,700[6] Allied naval and merchant navy personnel in over 5,000[5] ships were involved. The invasion required the transport of soldiers and materiel from the United Kingdom by troop-laden aircraft and ships, the assault landings, air support, naval interdiction of the English Channel and naval fire-support. The landings took place along a 50-mile (80 km) stretch of the Normandy coast divided into five sectors: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno and Sword.

Operations

The Allied invasion was detailed in several overlapping operational plans according to the D-Day museum:

“The armed forces use codenames to refer to the planning and execution of specific military operations. Operation Overlord was the codename for the Allied invasion of northwest Europe. The assault phase of Operation Overlord was known as Operation Neptune. Operation Neptune began on D-Day ( 6 June 1944) and ended on 30 June 1944. By this time, the Allies had established a firm foothold in Normandy. Operation Overlord also began on D-Day, and continued until Allied forces crossed the River Seine on 19 August 1944.”
Weather

Only a few days in each month were suitable for launching the operation, because both a full moon and a spring tide were required: the former to illuminate navigational landmarks for the crews of aircraft, gliders and landing craft, and the latter to provide the deepest possible water to help safe navigation over defensive obstacles placed by the Germans in the surf on the seaward approaches to the beaches. Allied Expeditionary Force Supreme Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower had tentatively selected 5 June as the date for the assault. Most of May had fine weather, but this deteriorated in early June. On 4 June, conditions were clearly unsuitable for a landing; wind and high seas would make it impossible to launch landing craft, and low clouds would prevent aircraft finding their targets. The Allied troop convoys already at sea were forced to take shelter in bays and inlets on the south coast of Britain for the night.

It seemed possible that everything would have to be canceled and the troops returned to their camps. The next full moon period would be nearly a month away. At a vital meeting on 5 June, Eisenhower’s chief meteorologist forecast a brief improvement for 6 June. General Bernard Montgomery and Eisenhower’s Chief of Staff General Walter Bedell Smith wished to proceed with the invasion. Leigh Mallory was doubtful, but Admiral Bertram Ramsay believed that conditions would be marginally favorable. On the strength of Stagg’s forecast, Eisenhower ordered the invasion to proceed. In the event, prevailing overcast skies limited Allied air support, and no serious damage was done to the beach defences on Omaha and Juno.[7]

The Germans meanwhile took comfort from the existing poor conditions, which were worse over Northern France than over the Channel itself, and believed no invasion would be possible for several days. Some troops stood down, and many senior officers were away for the weekend. General Erwin Rommel, for example, took a few days’ leave to celebrate his wife’s birthday,[8] while dozens of division, regimental, and battalion commanders were away from their posts at war games, the Allied forces were attacking.

Allied order of battle
D-day assault routes into Normandy

The order of battle for the landings was approximately as follows, east to west:
British Second Army

– 6th Airborne Division was delivered by parachute and glider to the east of the River Orne to protect the left flank. The division contained 7,900 men, including one Canadian battalion.[9]

Sword Beach

– 1st Special Service Brigade comprising No. 3, No. 4, No. 6 and No. 45 (RM) Commandos landed at Ouistreham in Queen Red sector (leftmost). No.4 Commando were augmented by 1 and 8 Troop (both French) of No. 10 Commando.
– I Corps, 3rd Infantry Division and the 27th Armoured Brigade from Ouistreham to Lion-sur-Mer.
– No. 41 (RM) Commando (part of 4th Special Service Brigade) landed on the far West of Sword Beach.[10]

Juno Beach

– 3rd Canadian Infantry Division, 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade and No.48 (RM) Commando from Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer to Courseulles-sur-Mer.[9]
– No. 46 (RM) Commando (part of 4th Special Service Brigade) at Juno to scale the cliffs on the left side of the Orne River estuary and destroy a battery.
Gold Beach

– XXX Corps, 50th Infantry Division and 8th Armoured Brigade, consisting of 25,000.[11] from Courseulles to Arromanches.
– No. 47 (RM) Commando on the West flank of Gold beach.
– 79th Armoured Division operated specialist armour for mine-clearing, recovery and assault tasks. These were distributed around the Anglo-Canadian beaches.

Overall, the 2nd Army contingent consisted of 83,115 troops.[9] In addition to the British and Canadian combat units, two troops of No. 10 Commando were employed, manned by Frenchmen, and eight Australian officers were attached to the British forces as observers.[12] The nominally British air and naval support units included a large number of crew from Allied nations, including several RAF squadrons manned almost exclusively by foreign air-crew.
U.S. First Army

Omaha Beach

– V Corps, 1st Infantry Division and 29th Infantry Division making up 34,250 troops from Sainte-Honorine-des-Pertes to Vierville-sur-Mer.[9][13]
– 2nd and 5th Ranger Battalions at Pointe du Hoc.[13]

Utah Beach

– VII Corps, 4th Infantry Division and the 359th RCT of the 90th Infantry Division comprising 23,250 men landing, around Pouppeville and La Madeleine.[13]
– 101st Airborne Division by parachute around Vierville to support Utah Beach landings.[13]
– 82nd Airborne Division by parachute around Sainte-Mère-Église, protecting the right flank. They had originally been tasked with dropping further west, in the middle part of the Cotentin, allowing the sea-landing forces to their east easier access across the peninsula, and preventing the Germans from reinforcing the north part of the peninsula. The plans were later changed to move them much closer to the beachhead, as at the last minute the German 91st Air Landing Division was determined to be in the area.[13][14]

In total, the First Army contingent totalled approximately 73,000 men, including 15,600 from the airborne divisions.[9]

German order of battle

The military forces at the disposal of Nazi Germany reached its numerical peak during 1944. By D-Day, 157 German divisions were stationed in the Soviet Union, 6 in Finland, 12 in Norway, 6 in Denmark, 9 in Germany, 21 in the Balkans, 26 in Italy and 59 in France, Belgium and the Netherlands.[15] However, these statistics are somewhat misleading since a significant number of the divisions in the east were depleted due to intensity of fighting; German records indicate that the average personnel complement was at about 50% in the spring of 1944.[16]

German defenses

The German defenses used an interlocking firing style, so they could protect areas that were receiving heavy fire. They had large bunkers, sometimes intricate concrete ones containing machine guns and high caliber weapons. Their defense also integrated the cliffs and hills overlooking the beaches. The defenses were all built and honed over a four year period.

Atlantic Wall

The Germans’ first line of defence was the English Channel, a crossing which had confounded the Spanish Armada and Napoleon Bonaparte’s Navy. Compounding the invasion efforts was the extensive Atlantic Wall, ordered by Hitler in his Directive 51. Believing that any forthcoming landings would be timed for high tide, Rommel had the entire wall fortified with tank top turrets and extensive barbed wire, and laid hundreds of thousands of mines to deter landing craft. The Allies chose to attack close to the sector boundary between the 7th and 15th German armies, on the extreme eastern flank of the former, to maximize the possible confusion of command responsibility during German reaction. The landings sector which was attacked was occupied by four German divisions.

Divisional areas

– 716th Infantry Division defended the Eastern end of the landing zones, including most of the British and Canadian beaches. This division, as well as the 709th, included Germans who were not considered fit for active duty on the Eastern Front, usually for medical reasons, and soldiers of various other nationalities and former Soviet prisoners-of-war who had agreed to fight for the Germans rather than endure the harsh conditions of German POW camps. These “volunteers” were concentrated in “Ost-Bataillone” that were of dubious loyalty.
– 352nd Infantry Division was a well-trained and equipped formation defending the area between approximately Bayeux and Carentan, including Omaha beach. The division had been formed in November 1943 with the help of cadres from the disbanded 321st Division, which had been destroyed in the Soviet Union that same year. The 352nd had a number of troops who had seen action on the eastern front.
– 91st Air Landing Division, comprising the 1057th Infantry Regiment and 1058th Infantry Regiment. This was a regular infantry division, trained, and equipped to be transported by air located in the interior of the Cotentin Peninsula, including the drop zones of the American parachute landings. The attached 6th Parachute Regiment had been rebuilt as a part of the 2nd Parachute Division stationed in Brittany.
– 709th Infantry Division, comprising the 729th Infantry Regiment, 739th Infantry Regiment (both with four battalions, but the 729th 4th and the 739th 1st and 4th being Ost, these two regiments had no regimental support companies either), and 919th Infantry Regiment. This coastal defense division protected the eastern, and northern coast of the Cotentin Peninsula, including the Utah beach landing zone. Like the 716th, this division comprised a number of “Ost” units who were provided with German leadership to manage them.

Adjacent divisional areas

Other divisions occupied the areas around the landing zones, including:

– 243rd Infantry Division, comprising the 920th Infantry Regiment (two battalions), 921st Infantry Regiment, and 922nd Infantry Regiment. This coastal defense division protected the western coast of the Cotentin Peninsula.
– 711th Infantry Division, comprising the 731th Infantry Regiment, and 744th Infantry Regiment. This division defended the western part of the Pays de Caux.
– 30th Mobile Brigade, comprising three bicycle battalions.

Armoured reserves

Rommel’s defensive measures were also frustrated by a dispute over armoured doctrine. In addition to his two army groups, von Rundstedt also commanded the headquarters of Panzer Group West under General Leo Geyr von Schweppenburg. This formation was nominally an administrative HQ for von Rundstedt’s armoured and mobile formations, but it was later to be renamed Fifth Panzer Army and brought into the line in Normandy. Von Geyr and Rommel disagreed over the deployment and use of the vital Panzer divisions.

Rommel recognised that the Allies would possess air superiority and would be able to harass his movements from the air. He therefore proposed that the armoured formations be deployed close to the invasion beaches. In his words, it was better to have one Panzer division facing the invaders on the first day, than three Panzer divisions three days later when the Allies would already have established a firm beachhead. Von Geyr argued for the standard doctrine that the Panzer formations should be concentrated in a central position around Paris and Rouen, and deployed en masse against the main Allied beachhead when this had been identified.

The argument was eventually brought before Hitler for arbitration. He characteristically imposed an unworkable compromise solution. Only three Panzer divisions were given to Rommel, too few to cover all the threatened sectors. The remainder, nominally under Von Geyr’s control, were actually designated as being in “OKW Reserve”. Only three of these were deployed close enough to intervene immediately against any invasion of Northern France, the other four were dispersed in southern France and the Netherlands. Hitler reserved to himself the authority to move the divisions in OKW Reserve, or commit them to action. On 6 June, many Panzer division commanders were unable to move because Hitler had not given the necessary authorization, and his staff refused to wake him upon news of the invasion.

– The 21st Panzer Division was deployed near Caen as a mobile striking force as part of the Army Group B reserve. However, Rommel placed it so close to the coastal defenses that, under standing orders in case of invasion, several of its infantry and anti-aircraft units would come under the orders of the fortress divisions on the coast, reducing the effective strength of the division.

The other mechanized divisions capable of intervening in Normandy were retained under the direct control of the German Armed Forces HQ and were initially denied to Rommel.
Coordination with the French Resistance

The various factions and circuits of the French Resistance were included in the plan for Overlord. Through a London-based headquarters which supposedly embraced all resistance groups, État-major des Forces Françaises de l’Intérieur, the British Special Operations Executive orchestrated a massive campaign of sabotage tasking the various Groups with attacking railway lines, ambushing roads, or destroying telephone exchanges or electrical substations. The resistance was alerted to carry out these tasks by means of the messages personnels, transmitted by the BBC in its French service from London. Several hundred of these were regularly transmitted, masking the few of them that were really significant.

Among the stream of apparently meaningless messages broadcast by the BBC at 21:00 CET on 5 June, were coded instructions such as Les carottes sont cuites and Les dés sont jetés.[17]

One famous pair of these messages is often mistakenly stated to be a general call to arms by the Resistance. A few days before D-Day, the first line of Verlaine’s poem, Chanson d’Automne, was transmitted. “Les sanglots longs des violons de l’automne”[18][19] alerted the resistance fighters of the Ventriloquist network in the Orléans region to attack rail targets within the next few days. The second line, “Bercent mon coeur d’une langueur monotone”, transmitted late on 5 June, meant that the attack was to be mounted immediately.

Josef Götz, the head of the signals section of the German intelligence service in Paris, had discovered the meaning of the second line of Verlaine’s poem, and no fewer than fourteen other executive orders they heard late on 5 June. His section rightly interpreted them to mean that an invasion was imminent or underway, and they alerted their superiors and all Army commanders in France. However, they had issued a similar warning a month before, when the Allies had begun invasion preparations and alerted the Resistance, but then stood down because of a forecast of bad weather. The SD having given this false alarm, their genuine alarm was ignored or treated as merely routine. Fifteenth Army HQ passed the information on to its units; Seventh Army ignored it.[19]

In addition to the tasks given to the Resistance as part of the invasion effort, the Special Operations Executive planned to reinforce the Resistance with three-man liaison parties, under Operation Jedburgh. The Jedburgh parties would coordinate and arrange supply drops to the Maquis groups in the German rear areas. Also operating far behind German lines and frequently working closely with the Resistance, although not under SOE, were larger parties from the British, French and Belgian units of the Special Air Service brigade.

Naval activity

The Invasion Fleet was drawn from eight different navies, comprising 6,939 vessels: 1,213 warships, 4,126 transport vessels, and 736 ancillary craft and 864 merchant vessels.[9]

The overall commander of the Allied Naval Expeditionary Force, providing close protection and bombardment at the beaches, was Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay who had been responsible for the planning of the invasion of North Africa in 1942 and one of the two fleets carrying troops for the invasion of Sicily in the following year. The Allied Naval Expeditionary Force was divided into two Naval Task Forces: Western and Eastern.

The warships provided cover for the transports against any enemy surface warships, submarines or aerial attack, and supported the landings with shore bombardment. These ships included the Allied Task Force “O”. A small part of the naval operation was Operation Gambit, when British midget submarines supplied navigation beacons to guide landing craft.
Naval screen

An important part of Neptune was the isolation of the invasion routes and beaches from any intervention by the German Navy – the Kriegsmarine. The responsibility for this was assigned to the Royal Navy’s Home Fleet. There were two principal perceived German naval threats. The first was surface attack by German capital ships from anchorages in Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea. This did not materialise since, by mid-1944, the battleships were damaged, the cruisers were used for training and the Kriegsmarine’s fuel allocation had been cut by a third. In any case, the Royal Navy had strong forces available to repel any attempts, and the Kiel Canal area was mined[20] as a precaution.

The second perceived major threat was that of U-boats transferred from the Atlantic. Air surveillance from three escort carriers and RAF Coastal Command maintained a cordon well west of Land’s End. Few U-boats were spotted, and most of the escort groups were moved nearer to the landings.

Further efforts were made to seal the Western Approaches against German naval forces from Brittany and the Bay of Biscay. Minefields were laid (Operation Maple) to force enemy ships away from air protection where they could be attacked by Allied destroyer flotillas. Again, enemy activity was minor, but on 4 July four German destroyers were either sunk or forced back to Brest.

The Straits of Dover were closed by minefields, naval and air patrols, radar, and effective bombing raids on enemy ports. Local German naval forces were small but could be reinforced from the Baltic. Their efforts, however, were concentrated on protecting the Pas de Calais against expected landings there, and no attempt was made to force the blockade.

The screening operation destroyed few German ships, but the objective was achieved. There were no U-boat attacks against Allied shipping and few attempts by surface ships.

Bombardment

Warships provided supporting fire for the land forces. During Neptune, it was given a high importance, using ships from battleships to destroyers and landing craft. For example, the Canadians at Juno beach had fire support many times greater than they had had for the Dieppe Raid in 1942. The old battleships HMS Ramillies and Warspite and the monitor HMS Roberts were used to suppress shore batteries east of the Orne; cruisers targeted shore batteries at Ver-sur-Mer and Moulineaux; eleven destroyers for local fire support. In addition, there were modified landing-craft: eight “Landing Craft Gun”, each with two 4.7-inch guns; four “Landing Craft Support” with automatic cannon; eight Landing Craft Tank (Rocket), each with a single salvo of 1,100 5-inch rockets; eight Landing Craft Assault, each with twenty-four bombs intended to detonate beach mines prematurely. Twenty-four Landing Craft Tank carried Priest self-propelled howitzers which also fired while they were on the run-in to the beach. Similar arrangements existed at other beaches.

Fire support went beyond the suppression of shore defenses overlooking landing beaches and was also used to break up enemy concentrations as the troops moved inland. This was particularly noted in German reports: Field-Marshall Gerd von Rundstedt reported that:

… The enemy had deployed very strong Naval forces off the shores of the bridgehead. These can be used as quickly mobile, constantly available artillery, at points where they are necessary as defence against our attacks or as support for enemy attacks. During the day their fire is skillfully directed by . . . plane observers, and by advanced ground fire spotters. Because of the high rapid-fire capacity of Naval guns they play an important part in the battle within their range. The movement of tanks by day, in open country, within the range of these naval guns is hardly possible.[21]

Just prior to the invasion, General Eisenhower transmitted a now-historic message to all members of the Allied Expeditionary Force. It read, in part, “You are about to embark upon the great crusade, toward which we have striven these many months.”[22] In his pocket was an unused statement to be read in case the invasion failed.[23]

The landings
Airborne operations

The success of the amphibious landings depended on the establishment of a secure lodgment from which to expand the beachhead to allow the build up of a well-supplied force capable of breaking out. The amphibious forces were especially vulnerable to strong enemy counterattacks before the build up of sufficient forces in the beachhead could be accomplished. To slow or eliminate the enemy’s ability to organize and launch counterattacks during this critical period, airborne operations were used to seize key objectives, such as bridges, road crossings, and terrain features, particularly on the eastern and western flanks of the landing areas. The airborne landings some distance behind the beaches were also intended to ease the egress of the amphibious forces off the beaches, and in some cases to neutralize German coastal defence batteries and more quickly expand the area of the beachhead. The U.S. 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions were assigned to objectives west of Utah Beach. The British 6th Airborne Division was assigned to similar objectives on the eastern flank. 530 Free French paratroopers from the British Special Air Service Brigade, were assigned to objectives in Brittany from 5 June to August.[24][25]

British airborne landings

East of the landing area, the open, flat, floodplain between the Orne and Dives Rivers was ideal for counterattacks by German armour. However, the landing area and floodplain were separated by the Orne River, which flowed northeast from Caen into the bay of the Seine. The only crossing of the Orne River north of Caen was 7 kilometres from the coast, near Bénouville and Ranville. For the Germans, the crossing provided the only route for a flanking attack on the beaches from the east. For the Allies, the crossing also was vital for any attack on Caen from the east.

The tactical objectives of the British 6th Airborne Division were (a) to capture intact the bridges of the Bénouville-Ranville crossing, (b) to defend the crossing against the inevitable armoured counter-attacks, (c) to destroy German artillery at the Merville battery, which threatened Sword Beach, and (d) to destroy five bridges over the Dives River to further restrict movement of ground forces from the east.

Airborne troops, mostly paratroopers of the 3rd and 5th Parachute Brigades, including the 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion, began landing after midnight, 6 June and immediately encountered elements of the German 716th Infantry Division. At dawn, the Battle Group von Luck of the 21st Panzer Division counterattacked from the south on both sides of the Orne River. By this time the paratroopers had established a defensive perimeter surrounding the bridgehead. Casualties were heavy on both sides, but the airborne troops held. Shortly after noon, they were reinforced by commandos of the 1st Special Service Brigade. By the end of D-Day, 6th Airborne had accomplished each of its objectives. For several days, both British and German forces took heavy casualties as they struggled for positions around the Orne bridgehead. For example, the German 346th Infantry Division broke through the eastern edge of the defensive line on 10 June. Finally, British paratroopers overwhelmed entrenched panzergrenadiers in the Battle of Bréville on 12 June. The Germans did not seriously threaten the bridgehead again. 6th Airborne remained on the line until it was evacuated in early September

American airborne landings

The U.S. 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, numbering 13,000 paratroopers delivered by 12 troop carrier groups of the IX Troop Carrier Command, were less fortunate in completing their main objectives. To achieve surprise, the drops were routed to approach Normandy from the west. Numerous factors affected their performance, the primary of which was the decision to make a massive parachute drop at night. As a result, 45% of units were widely scattered and unable to rally. Efforts of the early wave of pathfinder teams to mark the landing zones were largely ineffective, and the Rebecca/Eureka transponding radar beacons used to guide in the waves of C-47 Skytrains to the drop zones were the main component of a flawed system.

Three regiments of 101st Airborne paratroopers were dropped first, between 00:48 and 01:40, followed by the 82nd Airborne’s drops between 01:51 and 02:42. Each operation involved approximately 400 C-47 aircraft. Two pre-dawn glider landings brought in anti-tank guns and support troops for each division. On the evening of D-Day two additional glider landings brought in two battalions of artillery and 24 howitzers to the 82nd Airborne. Additional glider operations on 7 June delivered the 325th Glider Infantry Regiment to the 82nd Airborne, and two large supply parachute drops that date were ineffective.

After 24 hours, only 2,500 troops of the 101st and 2,000 of the 82nd were under the control of their divisions, approximating a third of the force dropped. The dispersal of the American airborne troops, however, had the effect of confusing the Germans and fragmenting their response. In addition, the Germans’ defensive flooding, in the early stages, also helped to protect the Americans’ southern flank.

Paratroopers continued to roam and fight behind enemy lines for days. Many consolidated into small groups, rallied with NCOs or junior officers, and usually were a hodgepodge of men from different companies, battalions, regiments, or even divisions. The 82nd occupied the town of Sainte-Mère-Église early in the morning of 6 June, giving it the claim of the first town liberated in the invasion.

Sword Beach

The assault on Sword Beach began at about 03:00 with an aerial bombardment of the German coastal defences and artillery sites. The naval bombardment began a few hours later. At 07:30, the first units reached the beach. These were the DD tanks of 13th/18th Hussars followed closely by the infantry of 8th Brigade.

On Sword Beach, the regular British infantry came ashore with light casualties. They had advanced about 8 kilometres (5 mi) by the end of the day but failed to make some of the deliberately ambitious targets set by Montgomery. In particular, Caen, a major objective, was still in German hands by the end of D-Day, and would remain so until the Battle for Caen, 8 August (D+63).

1st Special Service Brigade, under the command of Brigadier The Lord Lovat DSO, MC, went ashore in the second wave led by No.4 Commando with the two French Troops first, as agreed amongst themselves. The 1st Special Service Brigade’s landing is famous for having been led by Piper Bill Millin. The British and French of No.4 Commando had separate targets in Ouistreham: the French, a blockhouse and the Casino, the British, two German batteries which overlooked the beach. The blockhouse proved too strong for the Commandos’ PIAT weapons, but the Casino was taken with the aid of a Centaur tank. The British Commandos achieved both battery objectives only to find the gun mounts empty and the guns removed. Leaving the mopping-up procedure to the infantry, the Commandos withdrew from Ouistreham to join the other units of their brigade, moving inland to join-up with the 6th Airborne Division.

Juno Beach

The Canadian forces that landed on Juno Beach faced 2 heavy batteries of 155 mm guns and 9 medium batteries of 75 mm guns, as well as machine-gun nests, pillboxes, other concrete fortifications, and a seawall twice the height of the one at Omaha Beach. The first wave suffered 50% casualties, the second highest of the five D-Day beachheads. The use of armour was successful at Juno, in some instances actually landing ahead of the infantry as intended and helping clear a path inland.[26]

Despite the obstacles, the Canadians were off the beach within hours and beginning their advance inland. A single troop of four tanks managed to reach the final objective phase line, but hastily retreated, having outrun its infantry support. In particular, two fortified positions at the Douvres Radar Station remained in German hands (and would for several days until captured by British commandos), and no link had been established with Sword Beach.

By the end of D-Day, 30,000 Canadians had been successfully landed, and the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division had penetrated further into France than any other Allied force, despite having faced strong resistance at the water’s edge and later counterattacks on the beachhead by elements of the German 21st and 12th SS Hitlerjugend Panzer divisions on 7 June and 8 June.

Gold Beach

At Gold Beach, the casualties were also quite heavy, partly because the swimming Sherman DD tanks were delayed, and the Germans had strongly fortified a village on the beach. However, the 50th Infantry Division overcame these difficulties and advanced almost to the outskirts of Bayeux by the end of the day. With the exception of the Canadians at Juno Beach, no division came closer to its objectives than the 50th.

No.47 (RM) Commando was the last British Commando unit to land and came ashore on Gold east of La Hamel. Their task was to proceed inland then turn west and make a 16-kilometre march through enemy territory to attack the coastal harbour of Port en Bessin from the rear. This small port, on the British extreme right, was well sheltered in the chalk cliffs and significant in that it was to be a prime early harbour for supplies to be brought in including fuel by underwater pipe from tankers moored offshore.

Omaha Beach

Elements of the 1st Infantry Division and 29th Infantry Division (US) faced the recently formed German 352nd Infantry Division, a mixed group of Russian “volunteers” and teenagers stiffened with a cadre of east front veterans, unusual in the fact that it was one of the few German divisions remaining with a full complement of three regiments albeit at reduced strength; fifty percent of its officers had no combat experience. However, Allied intelligence was unaware until two weeks before the planned invasion that the 100 km stretch of beach originally allocated to be defended by the 716th Infantry Division had been cut into two parts in March, with the 716th moving to the “Caen Zone”, and the 352nd taking over the “Bayeux Zone”, thus doubling the complement of defenders.[27] Omaha was also the most heavily fortified beach, with high bluffs defended by funneled mortars, machine guns, and artillery, and the pre-landing aerial and naval bombardment of the bunkers proved to be ineffective. Difficulties in navigation caused the majority of landings to drift eastwards, missing their assigned sectors and the initial assault waves of tanks, infantry and engineers took heavy casualties. Of the 16 tanks that landed upon the shores of Omaha Beach only 2 survived the landing. The official record stated that “within 10 minutes of the ramps being lowered, [the leading] company had become inert, leaderless and almost incapable of action.

Only a few gaps were blown in the beach obstacles, resulting in problems for subsequent landings. The heavily defended draws, the only vehicular routes off the beach, could not be taken and two hours after the first assault the beach was closed for all but infantry landings. Commanders considered abandoning the beachhead, but small units of infantry, often forming ad hoc groups, supported by naval artillery and the surviving tanks, eventually infiltrated the coastal defenses by scaling the bluffs between strongpoints. Further infantry landings were able to exploit the initial penetrations and by the end of the day two isolated footholds had been established. American casualties at Omaha on D-Day numbered around 5,000 out of 50,000 men, most in the first few hours, while the Germans suffered 1,200 killed, wounded or missing. The tenuous beachhead was expanded over the following days, and the original D-Day objectives were accomplished by D+3.

Pointe du Hoc

The massive concrete cliff-top gun emplacement at Pointe du Hoc was the target of the 2nd Ranger Battalion, commanded by James Earl Rudder. The task was to scale the 30 meter (100 ft) cliffs under the cover of night, approximately at 5:30, one hour prior to the landings with ropes and ladders, and then attack and destroy the German coastal defense guns, which were thought to command the Omaha and Utah landing areas. The infantry commanders did not know that the guns had been moved prior to the attack, and they had to press farther inland to find them and eventually found and destroyed them. However, fortifications themselves were still vital targets since a single artillery forward observer based there could have called down accurate fire on the U.S. beaches. The Rangers were eventually successful, and captured the fortifications. They then had to fight for two days to hold the location, losing more than 60% of their men. Afterwards they regrouped with the remaining contingents of the 3rd infantry division and continued Northeast to the rally point one mile from the gun emplacements on Pointe Du Hoc.

Utah Beach

Casualties on Utah Beach, the westernmost landing zone, were the lightest of any beach, with 197 out of the roughly 23,000 troops that landed. The 4th Infantry Division troops landing at Utah Beach found themselves in the wrong positions because of a current that pushed their landing craft to the southeast. Instead of landing at Tare Green and Uncle Red sectors, they came ashore at Victor sector, which was lightly defended, and as a result, relatively little German opposition was encountered. The 4th Infantry Division was able to press inland relatively easily over beach exits that had been seized from the inland side by the 502nd and 506th Parachute Infantry Regiments of the 101st Airborne Division. This was partially by accident, because their planned landing was further down the beach (Brig. Gen. Theodore Roosevelt Jr, the Asst. Commander of 4th Division, upon discovering the landings were off course, was famous for stating “We will start the war from right here.”) . By early afternoon, the 4th Infantry Division had succeeded in linking up with elements of the 101st. American casualties were light, and the troops were able to press inward much faster than expected, making it a near-complete success.

War memorials and tourism

The beaches at Normandy are still referred to on maps and signposts by their invasion codenames. There are several vast cemeteries in the area. The American cemetery, in Colleville-sur-Mer, contains row upon row of identical white crosses and Stars of David, immaculately kept, commemorating the American dead. Commonwealth graves, in many locations, use white headstones engraved with the person’s religious symbol and their unit insignia. The largest cemetery in Normandy is the La Cambe German war cemetery, which features granite stones almost flush with the ground and groups of low-set crosses. There is also a Polish cemetery.

Detail from the National D-Day Memorial, Bedford, Virginia

Streets near the beaches are still named after the units that fought there, and occasional markers commemorate notable incidents. At significant points, such as Pointe du Hoc and Pegasus Bridge, there are plaques, memorials or small museums. The Mulberry harbour still sits in the sea at Arromanches. In Sainte-Mère-Église, a dummy paratrooper hangs from the church spire. On Juno Beach, the Canadian government has built the Juno Beach Information Centre, commemorating one of the most significant events in Canadian military history. In Caen is a large Museum for Peace, which is dedicated to peace generally, rather than only to the battle.

1. ^ “Frequently Asked Questions for D-Day and the Battle of Normandy (casualties)”. Ddaymuseum.co.uk. http://www.ddaymuseum.co.uk/faq.htm#casualties. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
2. ^ “The Landings in Normandy — Veterans Affairs Canada”. Vac-acc.gc.ca. http://www.vac-acc.gc.ca/remembers/sub.cfm?source=history/secondwar/canada2/normandy. Retrieved 2009-06-06.
3. ^ http://www.ddaymuseum.co.uk/faq.htm
4. ^ Hakim, Joy (1995). A History of Us: War, Peace and all that Jazz. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 157–161. ISBN 0-19-509514-6.
5. ^ a b “D-Day June 6, 1944″. www.army.mil US Army Official website. http://www.army.mil/d-day/. Retrieved 2009-05-14.
6. ^ Ambrose, Stephen E. (1994). D-Day. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-80137-X.
7. ^ Juno Beach from The Canadian Encyclopedia.
8. ^ “D-Day, People & Events: Erwin Rommel (1891-1944)”. American Experience, PBS. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/dday/peopleevents/p_rommel.html. Retrieved 2009-06-05.
9. ^ a b c d e f “Britannica guide to D-Day 1944″. http://www.britannica.com/dday/article-236192. Retrieved 2007-10-30. Also Keegan, John:The Second World War[page needed].
10. ^ “Britannica guide to D-Day 1944″. http://www.britannica.com/dday/article-236192. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
11. ^ “Britannica guide to D-Day 1944″. http://www.britannica.com/dday/article-9389939. Retrieved 2007-10-30.
12. ^ Vet Affairs, 21(1), March 2005. PDF copy
13. ^ a b c d e Map 81, M.R.D. Foot, I.C.B. Dear, ed (2005). The Oxford Companion to World War II. Oxford University Press. pp. 663. ISBN 9-780192-806666.
14. ^ Bradley, John H. (2002). The Second World War: Europe and the Mediterranean. Square One Publishers. p. 290. ISBN 0757001629. http://books.google.com/books?id=HP3-9NNz71sC&pg=PA290&lpg=PA290&ots=lzKtqLPDHv&output=html&sig=kOpC3DroIRJa_SduUsfycSA2vHo. Retrieved 2007-11-16.
15. ^ Wilmot, Chester (1952). The Struggle for Europe. ISBN 1853266779.
16. ^ Tippelskirch, Kurt von, Geschichte des Zweiten Weltkriegs. 1956
17. ^ La Seconde Guerre Mondiale–Hors-série Images Doc ISSN 0995-1121–June 2004
18. ^ Verlaine originally wrote, “Blessent mon cœur” (wound my heart). The BBC replaced Verlaine’s original words with the slightly modified lyrics of a song entitled Verlaine (Chanson d’Automne) by Charles Trenet.
19. ^ a b Foot, M.R.D. (1999). The Special Operations Executive 1940–1946. Pimlico. p. 143. ISBN 0-7126-6585-4.
20. ^ [1][dead link]
21. ^ von Rundstedt, Gerd. “German Commander-in-Chief West, Field Marshal Karl R. Gerd von Rundstedt’s Report on the Allied Invasion of Normandy”. U.S. Department of the Navy — Naval Historical Center. http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq109-5.htm. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
22. ^ “The Passing of the Torch. (See quote box on right hand side of the page)”. American Forces Press Service News Articles. http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=45278. Retrieved 2009-02-05.
23. ^ “Teaching With Documents: Message Drafted by General Eisenhower in Case the D-Day Invasion Failed and Photographs Taken on D-Day”. U.S. National Archives. http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/d-day-message/.
24. ^ Corta, Henry (1921-1998), a Free French SAS lieutenant veteran, (1952) : les bérets rouges (red berets).
25. ^ Corta, Henry, (1997) : Qui ose gagne (Who dares wins).
26. ^ Stacey, C.P. Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War. Volume III: The Victory Campaign
27. ^ “The 352nd Infantry Division at Omaha Beach”. http://www.omaha-beach.org/US-Version/352/352US.html.

At the start of World War I the RFC, commanded by David Henderson consisted of five squadrons – one observation balloon squadron (RFC No 1 Squadron) and four aeroplane squadrons (RFC No 2 and No 3 Squadrons were the first fixed-wing flying squadrons in the world).[1] These were first used for aerial spotting on 13 September 1914, but only became efficient when they perfected the use of wireless communication at Aubers Ridge on 9 May 1915. Aerial photography was attempted during 1914, but again only became effective the next year. By 1918, photographic images could be taken from 15,000 feet, and interpreted by over 3,000 personnel. Parachutes were not available to pilots of the RFC’s heavier-than-air craft – nor were they used by the RAF during the First World War – although the Calthrop Guardian Angel parachute (1916 model) was officially adopted just as the war ended. By this time parachutes had been used by balloonists for three years.[2][3]

On 17 August 1917, General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council on the future of air power. Because of its potential for the ‘devastation of enemy lands and the destruction of industrial and populous centres on a vast scale’, he recommended a new air service be formed that would be on a level with the Army and Royal Navy. The formation of the new service would, however, make the under-utilised men and machines of the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) available for action across the Western Front, as well as ending the inter-service rivalries that at times had adversely affected aircraft procurement. On 1 April 1918, the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form a new service, the Royal Air Force (RAF). The RAF was under the control of the new Air Ministry. After starting in 1914 with some 2,073 personnel, by the start of 1919 the RAF had 4,000 combat aircraft and 114,000 personnel.[4]

Origin and early history
Royal Flying Corps cap badge

With the growing recognition of the potential for aircraft as a cost-effective method of reconnaissance and artillery observation, the Committee of Imperial Defence established a sub-committee to examine the question of military aviation in November 1911. The following February the sub-committee reported its findings which recommended that a flying corps be formed and that it consist of a naval wing, a military wing, a central flying school and an aircraft factory. The recommendations of the committee were accepted and on 13 April 1912 King George V signed a royal warrant establishing the Royal Flying Corps. The Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers became the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps a month later on 13 May.[5]

The Flying Corps’ initial allowed strength was 133 officers, and by the end of that year it had 12 manned balloons and 36 aeroplanes. The RFC originally came under the responsibility of Brigadier-General Henderson, the Director of Military Training, and had separate branches for the Army and the Navy. Major Sykes commanded the Military Wing[6] and Commander C R Samson commanded the Naval Wing.[7] The Royal Navy however, with different priorities to that of the Army and wishing to retain greater control over its aircraft, formally separated its branch and renamed it the Royal Naval Air Service in 1914, although a combined central flying school was retained.

The RFC’s motto was Per ardua ad astra (“Through adversity to the stars”). This remains the motto of the Royal Air Force (RAF) and other Commonwealth air forces.

The RFC’s first fatal crash was on 5 July 1912 near Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain. Killed were Captain Eustace B. Loraine and his observer, Staff Sergeant R.H.V. Wilson, flying from Larkhill Aerodrome. An order was issued after the crash stating “Flying will continue this evening as usual”, thus beginning a tradition.

In August 1912 RFC Lieutenant Wilfred Parke became the first aviator to recover from an accidental spin when the Avro G cabin biplane, with which he had just broken a world endurance record, entered a spin at 700 feet above ground level at Larkhill Aerodrome at Salisbury Plain. Four months later on 11 December 1912 Parke was killed by the fall of the Handley Page mono plane in which he was travelling from Hendon to Oxford.

Aircraft
Sopwith Camel

Aircraft used during the war by the RFC included:

* Airco DH 2, DH 4, DH 5, and DH 9
* Armstrong-Whitworth F.K.8
* Avro 504
* Bristol F2A and F2B Fighter
* Handley Page O/400
* Martinsyde G.100
* Morane-Saulnier Bullet Biplane Parasol
* Nieuport Scout 17, 24, 27
* Royal Aircraft Factory B.E.2a, B.E.2b, B.E.2c, B.E.2e, B.E.12, F.E.2b, F.E.8, R.E.8, S.E5a
* Sopwith Aviation Company 1½ Strutter, Pup, Triplane, Camel, Dolphin
* SPAD S.VII
* Vickers FB5

Squadrons

Two of the first three RFC squadrons were formed from the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers: No. 1 Company (a balloon company) becoming No. 1 Squadron, RFC, and No. 2 Company (a ‘heavier than air’ company) becoming No. 3 Squadron, RFC. A second heavier-than-air squadron, No. 2 Squadron, RFC, was also formed on the same day.

No. 4 Squadron, RFC was formed from No. 2 Sqn in August 1912, and No. 5 Squadron, RFC from No. 3 Sqn in July 1913.

By the end of March 1918, the Royal Flying Corps comprised some 150 squadrons.

The composition of an RFC squadron varied depending on its designated role, although the Commanding Officer was usually a Major (in a largely non-operational role), with the Squadron ‘Flights’ (annotated A, B, C etc) the basic tactical and operational unit, each commanded by a Captain. A ‘Recording Officer’ (of Captain/Lieutenant rank) would act as Intelligence Officer and Adjutant, commanding two or three NCOs and ten other ranks in the Administration section of the Squadron. Each flight contained on average between six to ten pilots (and a corresponding number of observers, if applicable) with a Senior Sergeant and thirty-six other ranks (as Fitters, Riggers,Metal smiths, Armourers etc). The average squadron also had on complement an Equipment Officer, Armaments Officer (each with five other ranks) and a Transport Officer, in charge of twenty-two other ranks. The Squadron transport establishment typically included 1 car, 5 light tenders, 7 heavy tenders, 2 repair lorries, 8 motorcycles and 8 trailers.[8]
Wings

Wings in the Royal Flying Corps consisted of a number of squadrons.

When the Royal Flying Corps was established it was intended to be a joint service and given the rivalry that existed between the British Army and Royal Navy certain new terminology was thought necessary in order to avoid marking the Corps out as having a particularly Army or Navy ethos. Accordingly, the Corps was originally split into two wings: a Military Wing (i.e. an army wing) and a Naval Wing. By 1914, the Naval Wing had become the Royal Naval Air Service, having gained its independence from the Royal Flying Corps.

By November 1914 the Flying Corps had significantly expanded and it was felt necessary to create organizational units which would control collections of squadrons; the term “wing” was re-used for these new organizational units.

The Military Wing was abolished and its units based in Great Britain were re-grouped as the Administrative Wing.[9] The RFC squadrons in France were grouped under the newly established 1st Wing and the 2nd Wing. The 1st Wing was assigned to the support of the 1st Army whilst the 2nd Wing supported the 2nd Army

As the Flying Corps grew so did the number of wings. The 3rd Wing was established on 1 March 1915 and on 15 April the 5th Wing came into existence. By August that year the 6th Wing had been created and in November 1915 a 7th Wing and 8th Wing had also been stood up.

Brigades

Following, Sir David Henderson’s return from France to the War Office in August 1915, he submitted a scheme to the Army Council which was intended to expand the command structure of the Flying Corps. The Corps’ wings would be grouped in pairs to form brigades and the commander of each brigade would hold the temporary rank of brigadier-general. The scheme met with Lord Kitchener’s approval and although many more junior staff officers opposed it, the scheme was adopted.[10]

The following brigades were established (the date of establishment is shown in parentheses):[11]

* I Brigade (16 January 1916)
* II Brigade (23 October 1915)
* III Brigade (16 January 1916)
* IV Brigade (1 April 1916)
* V Brigade (15 December 1915)
* VI Brigade (15 January 1916)
* Palestine Brigade (5 October 1917)[12]
* VII Brigade (October 1917)
* VIII Brigade (28 December 1917)

The IX, X and XI brigades were formed as part of the Royal Air Force and never existed as RFC formations.

Bases
Great Britain

* Larkhill 1912-1914
* RAF Halton 1914 – now a training station
* Castle Bromwich Aerodrome 1914-?
* RAF Wyton 1916-1918
* RAF Waddington 1916-1918
* RAF Northolt 1915-1918
* RAF Marham 1916-1918
* RAF Shawbury 1917-1918
* RAF Lakenheath 1914-1918
* RAF Mona 1915-1918
* RAF Andover 1912-1918 – now used by the Army Air Corps
* Bicester Airfield 1917-1918
* London Biggin Hill Airport 1917-1918
* London Southend Airport 1914-1918
* RAF Catterick 1914-1918
* RAF Doncaster 1916-1918
* RAF Elsham Wolds 1916-1918
* RAF Finningley 1915-1918
* RAF Hemswell 1916-1918
* RAF Hornchurch / Suttons Farm Airfield 1915-1918
* Hooton Park 1917-1918
* RAF Hemswell 1916-1918
* RAF Kenley 1917-1918
* RAF Manston 1915-1918
* North Weald Airfield 1916-1918
* RAF Molesworth 1917-1918
* RAF Upavon 1912-1918 – now used by the British Army, and called Trenchard Lines
* RAF Upper Heyford 1916-1918
* RAF Usworth 1916-1918
* RAF Yatesbury 1916-1918 – see The History of RAF Yatesbury ISBN 0-9548236-0-5
* RAF Martlesham Heath 1917-1918
* Perton Airfield
* RAF Netheravon [1]

Scotland

* Ayr Racecourse Scotland
* Gullane / West Fenton East Lothian Scotland
* Midlothian Scotland
* Montrose Broomfield Scotland 1915 -
* Stirling Raploch Scotland
* Turnhouse Scotland

Canada

The Royal Flying Corps Canada was established by the RFC in 1917 to train aircrew in Canada. Air stations were established in southern Ontario at the following locations:

* Camp Borden 1917-1918
* Armour Heights Field 1917-1918 (pilot training, School of Special Flying to train instructors)
* Leaside Aerodrome 1917-1918 (Artillery Cooperation School)
* Long Branch Aerodrome 1917-1918
* Curtiss School of Aviation (flying-boat station at Hanlan’s Point on Toronto Island 1915-1918; main school and hanger facilities at Long Branch)
* Deseronto Airfield, Deseronto (pilot training)
* Camp Mohawk and Camp Rathburn – located at the Tyendinaga Indian Reserve near Belleville (pilot training)
* Hamilton (Armament School)
* Beamsville Camp (Aerial fighting)

Further information: Royal Flying Corps Canada

Other locations

* St-Omers, France (headquarters)
* Ismailia, Egypt (training)
* Aboukir, Egypt (training)
* Abu Sueir, Egypt (training)
* El Ferdan, Egypt (training)
* El Rimal, Egypt (training)
* Camp Taliaferro, North Texas, USA 1917-1918 (training)

First World War
Recruiting poster

The RFC was also responsible for the manning and operation of observation balloons on the Western front. When the BEF arrived in France in August 1914, it had no observation balloons and it was not until April 1915 that the first balloon company was on strength, albeit on loan from the French Aérostiers. The first British unit arrived 8 May 1915, and commenced operations during the Battle of Aubers Ridge. Operations from balloons thereafter continued throughout the war. Highly hazardous in operation, a balloon could only be expected to last a fortnight before damage or destruction. Results were also highly dependent on the expertise of the observer and was subject to the weather conditions. In order to keep the balloon out of the range of artillery fire, it was necessary to locate the balloons some distance away from the front line or area of military operations. However, a the stable platform offered by a kite-balloon made it more suitable for the cameras of the day than an aircraft.

For the first half of the war, as with the land armies deployed, the French air force vastly outnumbered the RFC, and accordingly did more of the fighting. Despite the primitive aircraft, aggressive leadership by RFC commander Hugh Trenchard and the adoption of a continually offensive stance operationally in efforts to pin the enemy back led to many brave fighting exploits and high casualties – over 700 in 1916, the rate worsening thereafter, until the RFC’s nadir in April 1917 ; dubbed ‘Bloody April’.

This aggressive if costly doctrine did however provide the Army General Staff with vital and up-to-date intelligence on German positions and numbers through continual photographic and observational reconnaissance though the entire war.

1914-15 – Initial actions with the British Expeditionary Force

At the start of the war, numbers 2, 3, 4 and 5 squadrons were equipped with aeroplanes, whilst the 1st Squadron was equipped with balloons.

The RFC’s first casualties were before the Corps even arrived in France. Lt Robert R. Skene and Air Mechanic Ray Barlow were killed on 12 August 1914 when their probably overloaded plane crashed at Netheravon on the way to rendezvous with the rest of the RFC near Dover.[13] Skene had been the first Englishman to do a loop in an airplane.

On 13 August 1914 2, 3, and 4 Squadrons, comprising 60 machines, departed Dover for the British Expeditionary Force in France. The 5 Squadron joined them a few days later. The aircraft took a route across the English Channel from Dover to Boulogne. They then followed the French coast to the Bay of the Somme before travelling inland by following the river to Amiens. When the BEF moved forward to Maubeuge the RFC accompanied them.

On 19 August the Corps undertook its first action of the War with two of its aircraft performing aerial reconnaissance. The mission was not a great success. In order to save weight each aircraft carried a pilot only instead of the usual pair of pilot and observer. Because of this, and poor weather, both of the pilots lost their way and only one was able to complete his task.

On 22 August 1914, the first British aircraft to be shot down by the Germans was lost. The crew, pilot Second Lieutenant Vincent Waterfall and observer Lt. Charles George Gordon Bayly of 5 Squadron flying an Avro 504 over Belgium were killed by infantry fire.[14][15]

Also on 22 August 1914, Captain L.E.O. Charlton (Observer) and his Pilot, Lieutenant Vivian Hugh Nicholas Wadham made the crucial observation of the 1st German Army’s attempt to out-flank the British Expeditionary Force. This allowed the BEF Commander-in-Chief Field Marshal Sir John French to realign his front and save his army around Mons.

Next day on 23 August 1914 the RFC found itself fighting in the Battle of Mons and two days after that the Flying Corps gained its first air victory. On 25 August Lt C.W. Wilson and Lt C.E.C. Rabagliati forced down a German Etrich Taube which had approached their aerodrome while they were refueling their Avro 504. Another RFC machine landed nearby and the RFC observer chased the German pilot into some nearby woods.

After the British retreat from Mons, the Corps fell back to the Marne where in September they the RFC again proved its value by identifying von Kluck’s First Army’s left wheel against the exposed French flank. This information was significant as the First Army’s manoeuvre allowed French forces to make an effective counter-attack and also prevented the encirclement of the British Army at Mons.

Sir John French’s (the British Expeditionary Force commander) first official dispatch on 7 September included the following: “I wish particularly to bring to your Lordships’ notice the admirable work done by the Royal Flying Corps under Sir David Henderson. Their skill, energy, and perseverance has been beyond all praise. They have furnished me with most complete and accurate information, which has been of incalculable value in the conduct of operations. Fired at constantly by friend and foe, and not hesitating to fly in every kind of weather, they have remained undaunted throughout. Further, by actually fighting in the air, they have succeeded in destroying five of the enemy’s machines.”

Markings

Early in the war RFC aircraft were not marked with any national insignia. Union Flags markings in various styles were painted on the wings (and sometimes the fuselage sides and/or rudder) at a squadron level when RFC aircraft were fired upon by “friendly” ground forces – but the large red St. George’s cross was liable to be mistaken for the crosses on German aircraft. By late 1915 the RFC had officially adopted the familiar French cockade (roundel) marking, but with the colours in reverse order (blue circle outermost). Contrary to usual French practice at the time, this was applied to the fuselage sides as well as the wings. Largely to avoid “friendly” attack in the air, the rudders of RFC aircraft were painted (again, in order to match those of their French allies) with the red, white and blue stripes of the tricolour.

Later in the war, a “night roundel” was used for night flying aircraft – especially the Handley Page O/400 heavy bombers. This dispensed with the (very conspicuous) white circle of the “day” marking.

Roles and responsibilities
Wireless Telegraphy and Photo-reconnaissance

Later in September, during the First Battle of the Aisne which followed, the RFC made use of wireless telegraphy to assist with artillery targeting and took aerial photographs for the first time.[16] From 16,000 feet a photographic plate could cover some 2 miles by 3 miles of front line in sharp detail. In 1915 Lieutenant-Colonel JTC Moore-Brabrazon designed the first practical aerial camera. These semi-automatic cameras became a high priority for the Corps and photo-reconnaissance aircraft were soon operational in numbers with the RFC. The camera was usually fixed to the side of the fuselage, or operated through a floor mounted aperture. The increasing necessity of accurate surveys of the entire western front and its approaches made the ongoing need for extensive aerial photography essential. Aerial photographs were exclusively used in compiling the British Army’s highly detailed 1:10,000 scale maps introduced in mid-1915. Such were advances in aerial photography that the entire Somme Offensive of July 1916 was based on the RFC’s air-shot photographs.

Artillery Spotting

One of the initial and most vital uses for RFC aircraft was the spotting of artillery fire. The results of the artillery fire were easy enough for the pilot to observe; the problem was communicating any necessary corrections to the firing battery. The early method was for the flier to write a note and drop it to the ground where it could be recovered. The RFC pioneered experiments with radio transmitters in their aircraft. Unfortunately the transmitters of the time weighed 75 pounds and filled an entire seat in the cockpit. This meant that the pilot had to fly the aircraft, navigate, observe the fall of the shells and transmit the results by morse code by himself. Also, the radios in the aircraft could not receive so the pilots could not be sent any instructions or questions from the ground. This work was originally done by a special Wireless Flight which was attached to No. 4 Squadron RFC. Eventually this flight was expanded into No. 9 Squadron under Major Hugh Dowding.

Covert Operations

A more unusual mission for the RFC was the delivery of spies to behind enemy lines. The first such mission took place on the morning of 13 September 1915 and was not a success. The plane crashed, the pilot and spy were badly injured and they were both captured. (Two years later, however, the pilot, Captain T.W. Mulcahy-Morgan, escaped and returned to England.) Later missions were more successful. In addition to delivering the spies the RFC was also responsible for keeping the spies supplied with the carrier pigeons that were used to send reports back to base. In 1916 a Special Duty Flight was formed as part of the Headquarters Wing to handle these and other unusual assignments.

Aerial bombardment

The obvious potential for aerial bombardment of the enemy was not lost on the RFC, and despite the poor payload carrying performance of the early war aircraft, bombing missions were undertaken. Front line Squadrons -invariably at the prompting of the more inventive minded pilots- devised several methods of carrying, aiming and dropping bombs. Lieutenant Conran of No 3 Squadron attacked an enemy troop column by dropping hand grenades over the side of his cockpit; the noise of the grenades caused the horses to stampede. At No 6 Squadron, Captain Louis Strange managed to destroy two canvas-covered trucks with home-made petrol bombs.

In March 1915 the first planned bombing raid of the war was flown, with Captain Strange flying a modified BE-2c to carry four 20 lb bombs on wing racks released by pulling a cable fitted in the cockpit. Attacking Courtrai railway station, Strange attacked from low-level and hit a troop train causing 75 casualties. The same day Captain Carmichael of No 5 Squadron dropped a 100 lb bomb from a Martinsyde S1 on the railway junction at Menin. Days later,Lieutenant WB Rhodes-Moorhouse of No 2 Squadron was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross after bombing Courtrai station in a BE2c.

In October 1917 No 41 Wing was formed as a dedicated bombing formation to attack strategic targets inside Germany. Consisting of No 55 Squadron (DH-4), No 100 (FE-2b) and No 16 (Naval) Squadron (Handley Page 0/100) the Wing were based at Ochey commanded by Lt-Colonel Cyril Newall. Its first attack was on Saarbrücken on 17 October with 11 DH-4s and a week later nine 0/100s carried out a night attack against factories in Saarbrücken whilst 16 FE-2b’s bombed railways nearby. Four aircraft failed to return. The Wing was expanded with the later addition of Nos 99 and 104 Squadrons, both flying the DH-4 into the Independent Air Force.

Ground Attack/ Army Support

Aircraft were increasingly engaged in ground attack operations as the war wore on, aimed at disrupting enemy forces at or near the front line and during the course of specific offensives. While formal tactical bombing raids were pre-planned and usually directed at specific targets, ground-attack was usually carried out by individual pilots or small flights against targets of opportunity. Although the fitted machine guns were the primary armament for ground attack, bomb-racks holding 20 lb Cooper bombs were soon fitted to many single seat aircraft. Ground attack sorties were carried out at very low altitudes and were often highly effective, in spite of the primitive nature of the weaponry involved, compared with later conflicts. The moral effect on ground troops subjected to air attack could even be decisive. Such operations became, however, increasingly hazardous for the attacking aircraft, as a single hit from small arms fire could often bring an aircraft down, and troops learned the trick of deflection shooting to accurately target a relatively slow moving enemy.

During the Battle of Messines in June 1917, Trenchard ordered the British crews to fly low over the lines and strafe all available targets. Techniques for Army and RFC co-operation quickly evolved and improved, and during the Third Battle of Ypres over 300 aircraft from 14 RFC squadrons, including the highly effective Sopwith Camel, armed with four 9 Kg (20 lb) bombs, constantly raided enemy trenches, troop concentrations, artillery positions and strongholds in co-operation with tanks and infantry.

The cost to the RFC was high, with a loss rate of ground attack aircraft approaching 30 percent of all aircraft employed. The Germans responded with the production of armoured aircraft – the first British production armoured type, the Sopwith Salamander, did not see service during the First World War.

Home Defence

In the UK the RFC Home Establishment was not only responsible for training air and ground crews and preparing squadrons to deploy to France, but providing squadrons for home defence, countering the German Zeppelin raids and later German bomber raids. The RFC (and the Royal Naval Air Service) initially had limited success against the German raids, largely through the problem of locating the attackers and having aircraft of sufficient performance to reach the operating altitude of the German raiders.

With the bulk of the operational Squadrons engaged in France few could be spared for home defence in the UK. Therefore training Squadrons were called on to supply home-defence aircraft and aircrews for the duration of the war. Night flying and defence missions were often flown by instructors in aircraft deemed worn-out and often obsolete for front-line service, although the pilots selected as instructors were often among the most experienced in the RFC.

By December 1916 there were some 11 RFC Home Defence Squadrons, and by the end of the war some 14 RAF Squadrons were established.

Saint-Omer

As the war moved into the period of the mobile warfare commonly called the Race to the Sea, the Corps moved forward again. On 8 October 1914 the RFC arrived in Saint-Omer and a headquarters was established at the aerodrome next to the local race course. Over the next few days the four squadrons arrived and for the next four years Saint-Omer was a focal point for all RFC operations in the field. Although most squadrons only used Saint-Omer as a transit camp before moving on to other locations, the base grew in importance as it increased its logistic support to the RFC.

Trenchard in command in France

Hugh Trenchard was the commander of the Royal Flying Corps in France from August 1915 until January 1918. Trenchard’s time in command was characterized by three priorities. First was his emphasis on support to and co-ordination with ground forces. This support started with reconnaissance and artillery co-ordination and later encompassed tactical low-level bombing of enemy ground forces. While Trenchard did not oppose the strategic bombing of Germany in principle, he opposed moves to divert his forces on to long-range bombing missions as he believed the strategic role to be less important and his resource to be too limited. Secondly, he stressed the importance of morale, not only of his own airmen, but more generally the detrimental effect that the presence of an aircraft had upon the morale of opposing ground troops. Finally, Trenchard had an unswerving belief in the importance of offensive action. Although this belief was widely held by senior British commanders, the RFC’s offensive posture resulted in the loss of many men and machines and some doubted its effectiveness.[17]

1916-17

Before the Battle of the Somme (1916) the RFC mustered 421 aircraft, with 4 kite-balloon squadrons and 14 balloons. These made up four brigades, which worked with four British armies.By the end of the Somme offensive in November 1916, the RFC had lost 800 aircraft and 252 aircrew killed (all causes) since July 1916, with 292 tons of bombs dropped, and 19,000 Recce photographs taken.

As 1917 dawned the Allied Air Forces felt the effect of the German Air Force’s increasing superiority in both organisation and equipment (-if not numbers). The recently formed Jastas, equipped with the Albatros fighter, inflicted very heavy losses on the RFC’s increasingly obsolete aircraft, culminating in Bloody April, the nadir of the RFC’s fortunes in WW1.

To support the Battle of Arras beginning on 9 April 1917, the RFC deployed 25 squadrons, totalling 365 aircraft, a third of which were fighters (scouts). The British lost 245 aircraft with 211 aircrew killed or missing & 108 as prisoners of war. The German Air Services lost just 66 aircraft from all causes.

By the summer of 1917 however, the introduction of the next generation of technically advanced combat aircraft (such as the SE5, Sopwith Camel and Bristol Fighter) ensured losses fell and damage inflicted on the enemy increased.

Close support and battlefield co-operation tactics with the British Army were further developed by November 1917, when low-flying fighter aircraft co-operated highly effectively with advancing columns of tanks and infantry during the Battle of Cambrai.

1917 saw 2,094 RFC aircrew killed in action or missing.

Italy

The disastrous defeat of the Italian Army by Austro-Hungarian and German forces in the Battle of Caporetto led to the transfer of 3 RFC Sopwith Camel fighter (28, 45 and 66 Squadrons), one two-seater squadron (34 Squadron, with RE-8′s) and No. 4 Balloon Wing to the Italian Front in November 1917. No. 139 Squadron (Bristol Fighters) were added in July 1918.

Other Theatres of operations

RFC Squadrons were also deployed to the Middle East and the Balkans. In July 1916 the Middle-East Brigade of the RFC was formed under the command of Brigadier General W G H Salmond, concentrating RFC units based in Macedonia, Mesopotamia, Palestine and East Africa under one unified command. In the Middle East units had to make do with older, often obsolete equipment before being given more modern aircraft. The Palestine Brigade of the RFC was formed in October 1917 to support General Allenby’s ground offensive against the Turks in Palestine.

Despite their relatively small numbers the RFC gave valuable assistance to the Army in the eventual defeat of Turkish forces in Palestine, Trans Jordan and Mesopotamia(Iraq).

1918

The German Offensive in March 1918 was an all-out effort to win the war before the industrial and numerical might of the USA could be brought to bear on the Western Front. In the weeks following the launch of the attack, RFC crews flew unceasingly, with all types of aircraft bombing and strafing ground forces, often from extremely low level, meantime also bringing back vital reports of the fluid ground fighting.

The RFC contributed significantly to slowing the German advance and ensuring the controlled retreat of the Allied Armies did not turn into a rout. The battle reached its peak on 12 April, when the newly formed RAF dropped more bombs, and flew more missions that any other day during the war. The cost to halting the German advance was high however, with over 400 aircrew killed and 1000 aircraft lost to enemy action.

Amalgamation with the RNAS

On 17 August 1917, General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council on the future of air power. Because of its potential for the ‘devastation of enemy lands and the destruction of industrial and populous centres on a vast scale’, he recommended a new air service be formed that would be on a level with the Army and Royal Navy.

Surprisingly, Trenchard was opposed to a new service[citation needed]. He had always felt that the purpose of the RFC was to support the Army (and the RNAS the Navy) and was worried that a new service wouldn’t provide the same level of tactical battle field support. He was also concerned about the careers of the pilots. Because of the high demands on RFC pilots many of them became burned out and were unable to continue in combat. Since pilots were seconded to the RFC from other regiments they could return to those units once they were no longer able to fly. In a separate service this would no longer be an option. The formation of the new service however would make the underutilised men and machines of the RNAS available for action across the Western Front, as well as ending the interservice rivalries that at times had adversely affected aircraft procurement.

On 1 April 1918, the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form a new service, the Royal Air Force. The RAF was under the control of the new Air Ministry. After starting in 1914 with some 2,073 personnel by the start of 1919 the RAF had 4,000 combat aircraft and 114,000 personnel.

Recruitment and training

Many pilots were initially seconded to the RFC from their original regiments by becoming an observer. Some RFC ground crew (often NCO’s or below) also volunteered for these flying duties as they then received supplementary flying pay. There was no formal training for observers until 1917 and many were sent on their first sortie with only a brief introduction to the aircraft from the pilot. Once certified as fully qualified the observer was awarded the coveted half-wing brevet. Once awarded this could not be forfeited so it essentially amounted to a decoration. Originally in the RFC, as in most early air forces, the observer was nominally in command of the aircraft with the pilot having the role of a “chauffeur”. In practice, this was reversed at an early stage in the RFC, so that the pilot normally commanded the aircraft. Most operational two seaters of the period did not have dual controls (an exception was the F.K. 8), so that the death or incapacity of the pilot normally meant an inevitable crash – but nonetheless many observers gained at least rudimentary piloting skills, and it was very common for experienced observers to be selected for pilot training.

Applicant for aircrew generally entered the RFC as a cadet via the depot pool for basic training. The cadet would then generally pass on to the School of Military Aeronautics at either Reading or Oxford. Following this period of theoretical learning the cadet was posted to a Training Squadron, either in the UK or overseas.

Colonel Robert Smith-Barry, a former CO of 60 Squadron, appalled at the poor standard of newly trained pilots and high fatality rate during training in 1915-16, formulated a comprehensive curriculum for pilot training, and with the agreement of Trenchard, returned to the UK to implement his training ethos at Gosport in 1917. The immediate effect was to halve fatalities in training. The curriculum was based on a combination of classroom theory and dual flight instruction. Students were not to be discouraged from potentially dangerous manoeuvres but were exposed to them in a controlled environment so that the student could learn to safely rectify errors of judgement.

Dual flying training usually weeded out those not suitable for flying training ( approximately 45% of the initial class intake) before the remaining cadets were taught in the air by an instructor ( initially a ‘tour-expired’ pilot sent for a rest from an operational squadron in France, without any specific training on how to instruct). After flying 10 to 20 hours dual instruction, the pupil would be ready to ‘go solo’.

In May 1916 pilots under instruction were further trained for fighting in the air. Schools of special flying were set up at Turnberry, Marske, Sedgeforth, Feiston, East Fortune and Ayr, where finished pilots could simulate combat flying under the supervision of veteran instructors.[18]

In 1917, the American, British, and Canadian Governments agreed to join forces for training. Between April 1917 and January 1919, Camp Borden in Ontario hosted instruction on flying, wireless, air gunnery and photography, training 1,812 RFC Canada pilots and 72 for the United States. Training also took place at several other Ontario locations.

During winter 1917-18, RFC instructors trained with the Signal Corps of the U.S. Army on three airfields accommodating about six thousand men, at Camp Taliaferro near Fort Worth, Texas. Training was hazardous; 39 RFC officers and cadets died in Texas. Eleven remain there, reinterred in 1924 at a Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery where a monument honours their sacrifice.

Seven training squadrons were located in Egypt at five training depot stations.

As the war drew on the RFC increasingly drew on men from across the British Empire including South Africa, Canada and Australia. As well as individual personnel, the separate Australian Flying Corps (AFC) deployed Nos 1, 2, 3 and 4 Squadrons AFC (which the RFC referred to as 67, 68, 69 and 71 Squadrons). Over 200 Americans joined the RFC before the United States became a combatant. Eventually Canadians made up nearly a third of RFC aircrew.

Although as the war progressed and training became far safer, by the end of the war, some 8,000 had been killed while training or in flying accidents.[18]

Parachutes

Parachuting from balloons and aircraft, with very few accidents, had been a popular “stunt” for several years before the war. In 1915 inventor Everard Calthrop offered the RFC his patented parachute. On 13 January 1917, Captain Clive Collett, a New Zealander, made the first British military parachute jump from a heavier-than-air craft. The jump, from 600 feet, was successful but although parachutes were issued to the crews of observation balloons, the higher authorities in the RFC and the Air Board were opposed to the issuing of parachutes to pilots of heavier-than-air craft. It was felt at the time that a parachute might tempt a pilot to abandon his aircraft in an emergency rather than continuing the fight. The parachutes of the time were also heavy and cumbersome, and the added weight was frowned upon by some experienced pilots as it adversely affected aircraft with already marginal performance. It was not until 16 September 1918 that an order was issued for all single seater aircraft to be fitted with parachutes, and this did not eventuate until after the war.[3]

End of the war

At the end of the war there were 5,182 pilots in service (just 2% of the RAF). In comparison the casualties from the RFC/RNAS/RAF for 1914-18 totalled 9,378 killed or missing, with 7,245 wounded. Some 900,000 flying hours on operations were logged, and 6,942 tons of bombs dropped. The RFC claimed some 7,054 German aircraft and balloons either destroyed, sent ‘down out of control’ or ‘driven down’.[19]

Eleven RFC members received the Victoria Cross during the First World War. Initially the RFC did not believe in publicising the victory totals and exploits of their Aces. Eventually however, public interest and the newspapers’ demand for heroes lead to this policy being abandoned, with the feats of aces such as Captain Albert Ball raising morale in the service as well as on the “home front”.

For a short time after the formation of the RAF, pre-RAF ranks such as Lieutenant, Captain and Major continued to exist, a practice which officially ended on 15 September 1919. For this reason some early RAF memorials and gravestones show ranks which no longer exist in the modern RAF. A typical example is James McCudden’s grave, though there are many others.

Commanders

The following had command of the RFC in the field:[2]

* Major General Sir David Henderson, 5 August 1914 – 22 November 1914
* Colonel (temporary) F H Sykes, 22 November 1914 – 20 December 1914[20]
* Major General Sir David Henderson, 20 December 1914 – 19 August 1915
* Brigadier General, later Major General, H M Trenchard, 25 August 1915 – 3 January 1918
* Major General J M Salmond, 18 January 1918 – 4 January 1919 (including period as General Officer Commanding the RAF in the field)

The following served as chief of staff for the RFC in the field:[3]

* 5 August to 22 November 1914 Major Frederick Sykes
* Post vacant
* 20 December 1914 to 26 May 1915 Lieutenant-Colonel Frederick Sykes
* 26 May 1915 to 12 March 1916 Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Brooke-Popham
* 19 March 1916 to 16 October 1916 Colonel Philip Game
* Unknown
* 1 April 1918 to 25 November 1918 Brigadier General Francis Festing (RAF not RFC)

Some members of the RFC

Militarily prominent

* Alfred Atkey – high scoring ace
* William George Barker – high scoring ace
* Albert Ball, VC – high scoring ace with 44 victories
* Billy Bishop, VC – First or Second (see also Edward Mannock, below) highest scoring British Empire flying ace of World War I
* Donald Cunnell – high scoring ace
* Hugh Dowding later commander of RAF Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain
* Air Marshal Sir Arthur Harris (“Bomber” Harris) later commander of RAF Bomber Command
* Lanoe Hawker VC, DSO, first British Air Ace, killed in action by the “Red Baron” Manfred von Richthofen
* Air Marshal George Owen Johnson CB, MC RCAF
* Trafford Leigh-Mallory later head of Fighter Command and brother of mountaineer George Mallory
* James McCudden – VC – high scoring ace with 57 victories
* George McElroy – high scoring ace
* Donald MacLaren – high scoring ace
* Edward Mannock – VC – Although his score is disputed, often acknowledged as the highest scoring British Empire ace
* John Moore-Brabazon 1st Lord Brabazon of Tara, later Minister of Aircraft Production under Winston Churchill
* Keith Park commander of Nº11 Group, Fighter Command during the Battle of Britain
* Noel Stephen Paynter – later chief intelligence officer of RAF Bomber Command
* Sir Charles Portal Chief of Air Staff throughout most of the Second World War
* Henry Tizard, British scientist and inventor, chairman of the Aeronautical Research Committee 1933-44.
* Hugh Trenchard – commander of RFC and later Chief of the Air Staff

Otherwise prominent

* O. G. S. Crawford later Archaeology Officer of the Ordnance Survey
* Charles Galton Darwin F.R.S., grandson of Charles Darwin
* Jack Hobbs cricketer
* W. E. Johns, author of the Biggles books
* John Lennard-Jones – scientist
* Cecil Lewis, author of Sagittarius Rising
* Oswald Mosley – founder of the British Union of Fascists
* Mick O’Brien – footballer
* William Stephenson Head of British Security Coordination during Second World War. Played key role in formation of the CIA. The first non-U.S. citizen to receive the Presidential Medal of Freedom
* Francis Peabody Magoun – Military cross winner 1918 & Harvard Professor.
* George Morgan Trefgarne, 1st Baron Trefgarne
* Vernon Castle – famous pioneer ballroom dancer
* Sir Charles Kingsford Smith – Australian aviation pioneer, first to cross the Pacific Ocean in 1928 using Fokker trimotor monoplane Southern Cross. First to cross the Atlantic Ocean west to east. First to cross the Tasman Sea also using the Southern Cross. He also set many records for flying solo between England and Australia and vice versa.
* Air Vice-Marshal Sir William Cushion, RAF and BOAC.
* Robert Smith-Barry – systematised the training of pilots and set up a formal curriculum of flying training (the “Gosport System”) that was subsequently taken up worldwide.

Fictional representations of the RFC

* Bartholomew Bandy
* Biggles
* “Private Plane”, a Blackadder episode
* Hell’s Angels, directed by Howard Hughes, starring Jean Harlow
* The Dawn Patrol, starring Errol Flynn, Basil Rathbone and David Niven
* “The Last Flight”, an episode of The Twilight Zone
* Aces High, a 1976 movie
* Goshawk Squadron and its prequels, by Derek Robinson

Notes

1. ^ Simkin, John. “Royal Flying Corps”. Spartacus Educational. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWraf.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-15.
2. ^ Beckett, p. 254.
3. ^ a b Lee (1968) pp.219-225
4. ^ Simkin, John. “Military Aviation”. Spartacus Educational. http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWWRFC.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-15.
5. ^ http://www.rafweb.org/RAF_History.htm
6. ^ London Gazette: no. 28609, p. 3583, 17 May 1912. Retrieved on 2009-02-26.
7. ^ http://www.fullbooks.com/A-History-of-Aeronautics4.html
8. ^ http://www.apw.airwar1.org.uk/co%2062%20sqn.htm
9. ^ “British Military Aviation in 1914 – Part 3″. RAF Museum Web Site – Timeline of British Military Aviation History. RAF Museum. http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/milestones-of-flight/british_military/1914_3.cfm. Retrieved 2008-06-03.
10. ^ Boyle, Andrew. “Chapter 6″. Trenchard Man of Vision. St. James’s Place London: Collins. pp. 157.
11. ^ http://www.rafweb.org/GrpO1.htm
12. ^ http://www.rafweb.org/GrpO3.htm
13. ^ Raleigh 1922, p.286.
14. ^ “Casualty Details:Vincent Waterfall”. Commonwealth War Graves Commission. Retrieved 10 January 2010.
15. ^ Jackson 1990, p.56.
16. ^ The British Air Services Memorial at St Omer
17. ^ Jordan, David (2000). “The Battle for the Skies: Sir Hugh Trenchard as Commander of the Royal Flying Corps”. in Matthew Hughes and Matthew Seligmann. Leadership in Conflict 1914 – 1918. Leo Cooper Ltd.. pp. 74–80. ISBN 0850527511.
18. ^ a b ‘First of the Few’, Denis Winter, 1982
19. ^ History of the RAF, Bowyer, 1977 (Hamlyn)
20. ^ Ash, Eric (1998). Sir Frederick Sykes and the air revolution, 1912-1918. Routledge. p. 62. ISBN 0714643823.

References

* Barker, Ralph (2002). The Royal Flying Corps in World War I. Robinson. ISBN 1-84119-470-0.
* Drew, George A. (1930). Canada’s Fighting Airmen. MacLean.
* Lee, Arthur Gould (1968). No Parachute. Harrolds.
* Jackson, A.J. (1990). Avro Aircraft since 1908 (Second ed.). London: Putnam. ISBN 0-85177-834-8.
* Raleigh, Walter (1922). The War In The Air: Being the Story of The part played in the Great War by The Royal Air Force: Vol I. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Early life and education

Born in Ube City, Yamaguchi Prefecture as the son of a businessman, Kan graduated in 1970 from the Tokyo Institute of Technology.
Career

Kan opened a patent office in 1974. He actively engaged in civic movements for years and achieved a seat in the lower house in 1980 as a member of Socialist Democratic Federation (SDF) through a grassroots environmental campaign. He gained national popularity in 1996 when as health minister he exposed the minister’s responsibility for the spread of tainted blood. At that time, he was a member of a small party forming the ruling coalition with the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP). His action was completely unprecedented and was applauded by the mainstream media and the public.

In 1998, his image was affected by allegations of an affair – vigorously denied by both parties – with a television newscaster and media consultant, Yuuko Tonomoto.[8] After Yukio Hatoyama resigned as the leader of the party (Democratic Party of Japan, DPJ), Kan again took over the position. In July 2003, the DPJ and the Liberal Party led by Ichir? Ozawa agreed to form a uniformed opposition party to prepare for the general election that was anticipated to take place in the fall.

During the campaign of the election of 2003, the DPJ called the election as the choice of the government between the ruling LDP-bloc and the DPJ, with Kan being presented as the alternative candidate to then Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi. His face was used as the trademark of the campaign against the LDP.

However, in 2004, Kan was accused of unpaid annuities and forced to again resign the position of leader. On May 10, 2004, he officially announced his resignation and made the Shikoku Pilgrimage.

In mid-October 2005, Kan, who turned 60 in 2006, proposed the creation of a new political party to be called the “Dankai (baby boomer) Party.” The initial intent of the party was to offer places of activity for the Japanese baby boomers – 2.7 million of whom began to retire en masse in 2007.

His hobbies are go, shogi and mahjong.[9] He has a wife and two sons, and lives in Tokyo.

Kan has earned the nicknames ‘Ira-Kan’ or ‘Fretful-Kan’ due to his reputed short temper. He believes the Japan Self-Defense Forces should play a more prominent role on the international stage.[10]
Finance Minister

On January 6, 2010, he was picked by Yukio Hatoyama to be the new Finance Minister, assuming the post in addition to deputy prime minister.[11] In his first news conference, Kan announced his priority was stimulating growth and took the unusual step of naming a specific dollar-yen level as optimal to help exporters and stimulate the economy. “There are a lot of voices in the business world saying that (the dollar) around ¥95 is appropriate in terms of trade,” he said.[12] Hatoyama appeared to rebuke Kan. “When it comes to foreign exchange, stability is desirable and rapid moves are undesirable. The government basically shouldn’t comment on foreign exchange,” he told reporters.[13]

Prime Minister

In June 2010, Kan emerged as the successor to Yukio Hatoyama[14] after Hatoyama announced his resignation as Prime Minister and DPJ leader and the resignation of Hatoyama’s main backer in the party, DPJ Secretary General Ichiro Ozawa.[15] Foreign minister Katsuya Okada and transportation minister Seiji Maehara were also considered possible successors to Hatoyama immediately after the latter’s announcement, but both quickly announced their support for Kan. Another less well known contender, Shinji Tarutoko, 50, a legislator who leads the environmental policy committee in the lower house of Parliament, was defeated. On 4 June, Naoto Kan was elected the head of the DPJ.[16] He was subsequently designated as Prime Minister by the Diet.[17] Although the Prime Minister is formally appointed by the Emperor, the Japanese Constitution requires him to appoint the person “designated by the Diet.” Kan is expected to be appointed as Japan’s 94th Prime Minister by Emperor Akihito sometime in mid-June.

References

1. ^ “From physics to politics, Naoto Kan is no “silver spoon” politician – People’s Daily Online”. English.peopledaily.com.cn. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90777/90851/7011382.html. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
2. ^ “NEWSMAKER – Japan’s Kan would be more pragmatic premier”. Reuters. 2009-10-14. http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTOE65104R20100602. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
3. ^ Tudor, Alison (2010-01-07). “Japan Taps Successor to Ailing Finance Chief – WSJ.com”. Online.wsj.com. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB126277442618617661.html. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
4. ^ “NEWSMAKER – Japan’s Kan would be more pragmatic premier”. XE.com. http://www.xe.com/news/2010-06-02%2006:53:00.0/1186137.htm?c=1&t=. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
5. ^ “PM-elect Kan’s formation of Cabinet may be delayed until next week”. The Mainichi Daily News. 4 June 2010. http://mdn.mainichi.jp/mdnnews/news/20100604p2a00m0na014000c.html. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
6. ^ “Kan elected prime minister to replace Hatoyama”. The Mainichi Daily News. 4 June 2010. http://mdn.mainichi.jp/mdnnews/news/20100604p2a00m0na005000c.html. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
7. ^ “Diet votes in Kan as prime minister”. The Japan Times. 4 June 2010. http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20100604x1.html. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
8. ^ Landers, Peter (February 4, 1999). “Dream Deffered”. Far Eastern Economic Review. http://tomcoyner.com/dream_deferred.htm. Retrieved June 4, 2010.
9. ^ http://news.asiaone.com/News/Latest%2BNews/Asia/Story/A1Story20100605-220351.html
10. ^ Power Players: Naoto Kan
11. ^ McCallum, Kenneth (January 6, 2010). “Kan to Take Over as Japanese Finance Chief”. wsj.com. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB126277442618617661.html?mod=WSJ_hps_LEFTWhatsNews. Retrieved January 6, 2010.
12. ^ Takashi Nakamichi (January 7, 2010). “Kan Calls for Weaker Yen”. Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB126285391946519405.html?mod=WSJ_hps_LEFTWhatsNews. Retrieved January 7, 2010.
13. ^ Nakamichi, Takashi (January 8, 2010). “New Japan Minister Starts Talking Yen Down”. The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB126285391946519405.html#mod=todays_us_page_one. Retrieved January 8, 2010.
14. ^ “Finance Chief Favored as Next Japanese Leader”, by Martin Fackler, The New York Times, 3 June 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-03.
15. ^ “Japan’s Premier Will Quit as Approval Plummets”, by Martin Fackler, The New York Times, June 1, 2010. Retrieved 2010-06-02.
16. ^ “????????????? ??????????? – Yahoo!????”. Headlines.yahoo.co.jp. http://headlines.yahoo.co.jp/hl?a=20100604-00000013-maiall-pol. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
17. ^ “Kan elected prime minister”. Asahi Shimbun. 4 June 2010. http://www.asahi.com/english/TKY201006040248.html.

The first Falcon 9 flight was successfully launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Space Launch Complex 40 on June 4, 2010 14:45 EDT (18:45 UTC) with a successful orbital insertion, after several delays.[5]

The Falcon 9 will be the launch vehicle for the SpaceX Dragon spacecraft. The Falcon 9 and Dragon combination won a Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract from NASA to resupply the International Space Station under the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program. Bigelow Aerospace is also considering the Falcon 9 for their Orion Lite manned spacecraft.

Design
Falcon 9 (left) and Falcon 9 Heavy (right)

The base Falcon 9 is a two stage, LOX/RP-1 powered launch vehicle. Its first stage is powered by nine SpaceX Merlin 1C rocket engines with 125,000 lbf sea-level thrust per engine for a total thrust on liftoff of approximately 4.9 million N (1.1 million lbf).[6] The Falcon 9 first stage uses a pyrophoric mixture of triethylaluminum-triethylborane (TEA-TEB) as a first-stage ignitor. [7]

The proposed Falcon 9 Heavy configuration consists of a standard Falcon 9 with two additional Falcon 9 first stages acting as liquid strap-on boosters,[8] which is conceptually similar to EELV launchers Delta IV Heavy and the future Atlas V HLV, and also to the Russian Angara carrier rocket.

The upper stage is powered by a single Merlin engine modified for vacuum operation, with an expansion ratio of 117:1 and a nominal burn time of 345 seconds. For added reliability of restart, the engine has dual redundant pyrophoric igniters (TEA-TEB).[6] SpaceX has expressed hopes that both stages will eventually be reusable.[4]

The interstage, which connects the upper and lower stage for Falcon 9, is a carbon fiber aluminum core composite structure. Stage separation occurs via reusable separation collets and a pneumatic pusher system. The Falcon 9 tank walls and domes are made from aluminum lithium alloy. SpaceX uses an all friction stir welded tank, the highest strength and most reliable welding technique available. The second stage tank of Falcon 9 is simply a shorter version of the first stage tank and uses most of the same tooling, material and manufacturing techniques. This results in significant cost savings in vehicle production.[6]

As with the company’s smaller Falcon 1 vehicle, Falcon 9′s launch sequence includes a hold-down feature that allows full engine ignition and systems check before liftoff. After first stage engine start, the launcher is held down and not released for flight until all propulsion and vehicle systems are confirmed to be operating normally. An automatic safe shut-down and unloading of propellant occurs if any abnormal conditions are detected.[6]

Falcon 9 will have triple redundant flight computers and inertial navigation, with a GPS overlay for additional orbit insertion accuracy.[6]

Initial descriptions

At an appearance in May 2004 before the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation, Elon Musk testified, “Long term plans call for development of a heavy lift product and even a super-heavy, if there is customer demand. [...] Ultimately, I believe $500 per pound [of payload delivered to orbit] or less is very achievable.”[13]

SpaceX formally announced the Falcon 9 on 2005-09-08, describing it as being a “fully reusable heavy lift launch vehicle.”[14] A Falcon 9 medium was described as being capable of launching approximately 21,000 lb (9,500 kg) to low Earth orbit, priced at $27 million per flight ($1286/lb).
Production and testing

On April 12, 2007 SpaceX announced it had completed the primary structure for its first Falcon 9 first-stage tank.[15] The tank was shipped to a SpaceX test facility in Texas for first-stage static firing validation. The first multi-engine test (with two engines connected to the first stage, firing simultaneously) was successfully completed in January 2008. On March 8, 2008, three Merlin 1C engines were fired simultaneously for the first time. The next test took place on May 29, 2008, and saw five engines firing together. The first nine-engine firing tests were conducted on July 31 and August 1, 2008; both were successful.[16][17][18] On November 22, 2008 the full Falcon 9 complement of nine engines was test fired for a full mission length (178 seconds) of the first stage.[19]

In February 2008, the plan was for the first Falcon 9/Dragon COTS Demo flight to be delayed by six months to late in the first quarter of 2009, due to the immense amount of development and regulatory work required. According to Elon Musk, the complexity of the development work and the regulatory requirements for launching from Cape Canaveral have contributed to the delay.[20]

In January 2009, Falcon 9 was first raised to the vertical position at Launch Complex 40 in Cape Canaveral. In October 2009, the first flight-ready first stage had a successful all-engine test fire at the company’s test stand in McGregor, TX. In November 2009 Space X conducted the initial second stage test firing lasting forty seconds. This test involved a new test stand, a new flight stage, and it occurred as planned, succeeding on the first attempt without aborts or recycles. On January 2, 2010, A successful full duration orbit insertion firing of the Falcon 9 second stage was conducted at the McGregor test site. SpaceX completed a full duration orbit insertion firing (329 seconds) of the integrated Falcon 9 second stage.

The full stack arrived at the launch site for integration at the beginning of February 2010, and SpaceX initially scheduled a launch date of March 22, 2010, though they estimated anywhere between one and three months for integration and testing.[21]
Falcon 9 with DSQU

On Thursday, February 25, 2010 SpaceX’s the first flight stack was set vertical at Space Launch Complex 40, Cape Canaveral,[22] and on Tuesday, March 9th, SpaceX performed a static fire test, where the first stage was to be fired without taking off. Some fire and smoke were seen at the base of the rocket, leading to speculation of an engine fire. However, all components checked out, but the test executed a nominal abort at T-2 seconds due to a failure in the spin-start system. This system is designed to pump high pressure helium from the launch pad into the first stage turbopumps to get them spinning in preparation for launch. Subsequent review showed that the failure point was a valve that didn’t receive a command to open. As the problem was with the pad and not with the rocket itself, it didn’t occur at the McGregor test site, which didn’t have the same valve setup. No damage was sustained by the vehicle or the test pad and the fire and smoke were the result of normal burnoff from the liquid oxygen and fuel mix present in the system prior to launch. All vehicle systems leading up to the abort performed as expected and no additional issues were noted that needed addressing. A subsequent test on March 13 was successful in firing the nine first stage engines for 3.5 seconds.[23]

The delay of the first flight from March 2010 to June was due to review of the Falcon 9 flight termination system by the Air Force. On June 1st, SpaceX announced on their update page that they had completed testing of the FTS and all results were nominal, thus they were expecting formal approval in time to launch on June 4th.

Just after ignition on June 4, the first attempt was aborted.[24] Falcon 9 successfully launched later that day.[25]
Scheduled launches
Falcon 9 launches from Cape Canaveral, June 4, 2010.

The first Falcon 9 launch was was planned no earlier than November 29, 2009.[26] The launch was later moved to February 9, 2010, and rescheduled for no earlier than March 2010. Launch dates were set for February 9, March 3, March 8, March 22, April 12, May 16, May 23, May 27, all rescheduled to the final launch date of June 4, 2010.[2]

* 4 June, 2010: Demonstration flight of Falcon 9 from Cape Canaveral. Flight carried a Dragon Spacecraft Qualification Unit as a payload. (Its booster caused a “UFO” sighting in Australia, similar to the 2009 Norwegian spiral anomaly.[27])
* 2010: Demo flight 1 of Falcon 9/Dragon for NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program.[28][29] The flight will also carry two cubesats as part of the NRO’s colony program.[30] Launch was expected in Q1 2010[31]
* 2010: Demo flight 2 of Falcon 9/Dragon for NASA COTS program,[28] 2nd stage becomes a rendezvous target for the Dragon capsule (per SpaceX manifest)[28]
* 2010: Demo flight 3 of Falcon 9/Dragon for NASA COTS program,[28] demonstration of cargo delivery to the International Space Station (per SpaceX manifest)[28]
* 2011: MDA Corporation payload on Falcon 9[28][29]
* 2011: Resupply mission 1 for NASA COTS program,[28] cargo delivery to the International Space Station (per SpaceX manifest)[28]
* 2011: Resupply mission 2 for NASA COTS program,[28] cargo delivery to the International Space Station (per SpaceX manifest)[28]
* 2012: DragonLab Mission 1. Non-COTS private mission of the Falcon 9 and Dragon spaceship – payload not yet public (per SpaceX manifest)[28]

There are twelve total Falcon 9 resupply missions contracted to the ISS between 2010 and 2015.[28]

On March 15, 2010, SpaceX announced that they had signed an agreement to launch a Space Systems/Loral-built satellite on a Falcon 9, “as early as 2012.”[32]

Comparable rockets

These rockets are all heavy lift launch vehicles (over 14,000 kg to LEO and over 5,000 kg to GTO). Most of them use liquid oxygen with liquid hydrogen or kerosene.

* Titan IIIC
* Ariane 5
* H-IIA
* H-IIB
* Atlas V
* Angara A3
* Delta IV
* Chang Zheng 5
* Proton
* GSLV III

Notes

1. ^ a b c d “Launch Cost Falcon 9″. SpaceX. http://www.spacex.com/falcon9.php#pricing_and_performance.
2. ^ a b “Detailed Mission Data – Falcon-9 ELV First Flight Demonstration”. Mission Set Database. NASA GSFC. http://msdb.gsfc.nasa.gov/MissionData.php?mission=Falcon-9%20ELV%20First%20Flight%20Demonstration. Retrieved 2010-05-26.
3. ^ SpaceX (March 10, 2009). “SpaceX Falcon 9 Upper Stage Engine Successfully Completes Full Mission Duration Firing”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20090310.
4. ^ a b Musk ambition: SpaceX aim for fully reusable Falcon 9, NASAspaceflight.com, 2009-01-12, accessed 2010-06-03. E. Musk Quotation: “By flight six we think it’s highly likely we’ll recover the first stage, and when we get it back we’ll see what survived through re-entry, and what got fried, and carry on with the process. … That’s just to make the first stage reusable, it’ll be even harder with the second stage – which has got to have a full heatshield, it’ll have to have deorbit propulsion and communication.”
5. ^ “Millionaire’s rocket blasts off on 1st test flight”. Houston Chronicle. June 4, 2010. http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ap/top/all/7036779.html. Retrieved June 4, 2010.
6. ^ a b c d e “Falcon 9 Overview”. SpaceX. 08 May 2010. http://www.spacex.com/falcon9.php.
7. ^ Mission Status Center, June 2, 2010, 1905 GMT, SpaceflightNow, accessed 2010-06-02, Quotation: “The flanges will link the rocket with ground storage tanks containing liquid oxygen, kerosene fuel, helium, gaserous nitrogen and the first stage ignitor source called triethylaluminum-triethylborane, better known as TEA-TAB.”
8. ^ a b SpaceX hopes to supply ISS with new Falcon 9 heavy launcher, Flight International, September 13, 2005, accessed 2010-06-03.
9. ^ “SpaceX Falcon Data Sheet”. Space Launch Report. 5 July 2007. http://www.spacelaunchreport.com/falcon.html#config.
10. ^ “Monster Progress Update (Mostly Falcon 9)”. SpaceX. 17 August 2007. http://www.spacex.com/updates_archive.php?page=081707.
11. ^ “Falcon 1 Overview”. SpaceX. 28 September 2007. http://www.spacex.com/falcon1.php.
12. ^ “Falcon 9 Heavy Overview”. SpaceX. http://www.spacex.com/falcon9_heavy.php. Retrieved 28 May 2010.
13. ^ Testimony of Elon Musk (May 5, 2004). “Space Shuttle and the Future of Space Launch Vehicles”. U.S. Senate. http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=12774.
14. ^ SpaceX (2005-09-08). “SpaceX Announces the Falcon 9 Fully Reusable Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=18.
15. ^ Space Exploration Technologies Corp. (2007-04-11). “SpaceX Completes Primary Structure of the Falcon 9 First Stage Tank”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=27.
16. ^ “SpaceX: First nine engine firing of its Falcon 9″. NASA Spaceflight. August 02, 2008. http://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?topic=13931.0.
17. ^ SpaceX (18 January 2008). “SpaceX Conducts First Multi-Engine Firing of Falcon 9 Rocket”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=35.
18. ^ SpaceX (27 March 2008). “SpaceX conducts first Three-Engine firing of Falcon 9 rocket”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=40.
19. ^ SpaceX (November 23, 2008). “SpaceX successfully conducts full mission-length firing of its Falcon 9 launch vehicle”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20081123.
20. ^ Rob Coppinger (2008-02-27). “SpaceX Falcon 9 maiden flight delayed by six months to late Q1 2009″. Flight Global. http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/02/27/221883/spacex-falcon-9-maiden-flight-delayed-by-six-months-to-late-q1.html.
21. ^ “”SpaceX announces Falcon 9 assembly underway at the Cape”. Orlando Sentinel. 11 Feb 2010. http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2010/02/spacex-announces-falcon-9-assembly-underway-at-the-cape.html.
22. ^ “Updates”. SpaceX. February 25, 2010. http://www.spacex.com/updates.php. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
23. ^ Kremer, Ken (March 13, 2010). “Successful Engine Test Firing for SpaceX Inaugural Falcon 9″. Universe Today. http://www.universetoday.com/2010/03/13/successful-engine-test-firing-for-spacex-inaugural-falcon-9/. Retrieved 2010-06-04.
24. ^ “Falcon 9 rocket launch aborted”. Washington Post. June 4, 2010. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/06/04/AR2010060403360.html. Retrieved June 4, 2010.
25. ^ “Millionaire’s rocket blasts off on 1st test flight”. Houston Chronicle. June 4, 2010. http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ap/top/all/7036779.html. Retrieved June 4, 2010.
26. ^ “Air Force: SpaceX’s Falcon 9 first launch planned for Nov 29″. Orlando Sentinel. Sep 22, 2009. http://blogs.orlandosentinel.com/news_space_thewritestuff/2009/09/air-force-spacexs-falcon-9-first-launch-planned-for-nov-29-.html.
27. ^ UFO spotted over eastern Australia, ABC Online, 5 June 2010
28. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l “Launch Manifest”. SpaceX. 2009. http://spacex.com/launch_manifest.php. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
29. ^ a b NASA, SpaceX (2006) (PDF). Space Act Agreement Between National Aeronautics And Space Administration And Space Explorations Technologies Corp. For Commercial Orbital Transport Services Demonstration (COTS). http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/162330main_SPACE_ACT_AGREEMENT_FOR_COTS.pdf. Retrieved 2007-11-22.
30. ^ “NRO Taps Boeing for Next Batch of Cubesats”. Space News. 2010-04-08. http://www.spacenews.com/military/100408-nro-taps-boeing-next-cubesats.html. Retrieved 2010-04-12.
31. ^ “COTS Status Update & Crew Capabilities” (PDF). SpaceX. 2009-06-17. http://www.spacex.com/20090617_Elon_Musk_Augustine_Commission.pdf. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
32. ^ SpaceX (March 15, 2010). “SpaceX and Space Systems/Loral Sign Contract for Falcon 9 Geosynchronous Transfer”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20100315. Retrieved 2010-06-04.

Originally based in El Segundo, SpaceX now operates out of Hawthorne, California.

Background
Falcon 1 prototype.

SpaceX was founded in June 2002 by PayPal co-founder Elon Musk who had invested US$100 million of his own money by March 2006.[1] On 4 August 2008, SpaceX accepted a further US$20 million investment from the Founders Fund.[2]

SpaceX grew from 160 employees in November 2005 to more than 500 by July 2008.[3][4] The launch crew in the Marshall Islands has 25 people with 6 in mission control. This small number, compared to similar space launch companies is part of Musk’s design to reduce costs. Musk believes the high prices of other space-launch services are driven in part by unnecessary bureaucracy. He has stated that one of his goals is to improve the cost and reliability of access to space, ultimately by a factor of ten.[citation needed]

In January 2005, SpaceX bought a 10% stake in Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd.[5][dated info]

On 18 August 2006, SpaceX announced that it has won a NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) contract to demonstrate cargo delivery to the International Space Station with a possible option for crew transport.[6]

On 23 December 2008, SpaceX announced that it had won a Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) contract, which guarantees NASA missions worth US$1.6 billion for resupplying the International Space Station, after the Space Shuttle retires in 2010.[7]
Space vehicles

SpaceX is manufacturing two main space launch vehicles: the Falcon 1, which made its first successful flight on 28 September 2008, and the large EELV class Falcon 9, which launched successfully to orbit on its first launch on 4 June 2010. A Falcon 5 launcher was also planned, but its development was stopped in favor of the Falcon 9. SpaceX is also developing the SpaceX Dragon, a human-rated orbital vehicle that will be launched on top of a Falcon 9 rocket.

On 2 May 2005, SpaceX announced that it had been awarded an Indefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity (IDIQ) contract for Responsive Small Spacelift (RSS) launch services by the United States Air Force, which could allow the Air Force to purchase up to $100,000,000 worth of launches from the company.[8] On 22 April 2008, NASA announced that it had awarded an IDIQ Launch Services contract to SpaceX for Falcon 1 and Falcon 9 launches. The contract will be worth between $20,000 and $1 billion, depending on the number of missions awarded. The contract covers launch services ordered by 30 June 2010, for launches through December 2012.[9]

Elon Musk stated in the same April 22 announcement that SpaceX has sold 14 contracts for flights on the various Falcon vehicles.[10]

On 16 June 2009, SpaceX announced the opening of its Astronaut Safety and Mission Assurance Department. It hired former NASA astronaut Ken Bowersox to oversee the department as a vice president of the company.[11]
Falcon 1
The first Falcon 1 at Vandenberg AFB. This vehicle was removed from VAFB due to delays and eventually launched from Kwajalein.
Main articles: Falcon 1, Falcon 1 Flight 4, and RazakSAT

The Falcon 1 is a small, partially reusable rocket capable of placing several hundred kilograms into low earth orbit. It also functions as a testbed for developing concepts and components for the larger Falcon 9.

Initial Falcon 1 flights were launched from the US government’s Reagan Test Center on the island atoll of Kwajalein in the Pacific Ocean, and represented the first attempt to fly a ground-launched rocket to orbit from that site. The first Falcon 1 mission flew on an unorthodox flight path which would have released its second stage somewhere in the continental United States between San Francisco, California, and Savannah, Georgia, in the event of a premature engine shutdown. Such a possible outcome was deemed an acceptable risk by management despite engineering studies placing its odds at around 1-in-700. Ultimately that maiden mission failed only seconds after leaving the pad due to a fuel line rupture. Subsequent flights followed more traditional, far less populated ground tracks, which was fortunate as the second Falcon 1 launch attempt suffered from exactly the kind of premature engine shutdown which was worrisome in the first flight. The next Falcon 1 mission failed due to the first stage ramming into the second stage engine bell at staging.

The Falcon 1 succeeded in reaching orbit at its fourth attempt on 28 September 2008, becoming the first privately funded, liquid-fueled rocket to do so.[12]

The Falcon 1 carried its first successful commercial payload into orbit on 13 July 2009. This was the fifth launch of the Falcon 1.[13]
Falcon 9
Main article: Falcon 9

On 8 September 2005, SpaceX announced the development of the Falcon 9 rocket, which was to have nine Merlin engines in its first stage.[14][15][16] The design is an EELV-class vehicle, intended to compete with the Delta IV and the Atlas V rockets. Both stages were designed for reuse. A similarly designed Falcon 5 rocket was also envisioned to fit between the Falcon 1 and Falcon 9, but development was dropped to concentrate on the Falcon 9.[14]

The company purchased the McGregor, Texas, testing facilities of defunct Beal Aerospace, where it refit the largest test stand at the facilities for Falcon 9 testing. On 22 November 2008, the stand tested the nine Merlin 1C engines of the Falcon 9, which deliver 350 metric-tons-force (3.4-meganewtons) of thrust, well under the stand’s capacity of 1,500 metric-tons-force (15 meganewtons).[17]

Company plans in 2004 called for “development of a heavy lift product and even a super-heavy, if there is customer demand” with each size increase resulting in a significant decrease in cost per pound to orbit. Projected dollar cost per pound to orbit could drop from $4,000 to $1,300 ($8,800/kg to $2,900/kg) between Falcon 1 and the five-engine concept vehicle, Falcon 5. CEO Elon Musk said: “I believe $500 per pound ($1,100/kg) or less is very achievable.”[18]

The Falcon 9 vehicle was integrated at Cape Canaveral on 30 December 2008. NASA was planning for a flight to take place in January 2010;[19] however the maiden flight was postponed several times and took place on 4 June 2010.[20] At 2:50pm EST the Falcon 9 Rocket successfully reached orbit.

SpaceX revealed in a June 2009 AIAA presentation another future plan, the Raptor project to create a higher performance LOX/liquid hydrogen second stage.[21]
Dragon
A SpaceX Dragon capsule engineering prototype on display at the 2007 X-Prize Cup at Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico.
Main article: SpaceX Dragon

SpaceX announced plans to pursue a manned commercial space program through the end of the decade.[22]

On 18 August 2006, NASA announced that the company was one of two selected to provide crew and cargo resupply demonstration contracts to the International Space Station (ISS) under the Commercial Orbital Transportation Services (COTS) program. SpaceX will demonstrate crew and cargo resupply using the SpaceX Dragon, a conventional blunt-cone ballistic capsule, which is capable of carrying 7 persons or a mixture of personnel and cargo to and from low Earth orbit.[23] It will be launched atop a Falcon 9 vehicle. The nose cone of the vehicle has a hinged cap, which opens to reveal a standard ISS Common Berthing Mechanism, which allows the Dragon to dock to the U.S. segment of the ISS. NASA’s plan calls for SpaceX demonstration flights between 2008 and 2010. SpaceX may receive up to $278 million if it meets all NASA milestones.[24][25][26]

First flight of a structural test article of the Dragon took place 4 June 2010 from Launch Complex 40 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station during the maiden flight of the Falcon 9.

In 2009 and 2010, Musk has suggested on several occasions that plans for a manned variant of Dragon were proceeding and had a 2- to 3-year time line to completion.[27][28]

Launch sites

* Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site, Omelek Island
* Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Space Launch Complex 40
* Vandenberg Air Force Base, Space Launch Complex 3

All Falcon 1 launches have taken place at Omelek Island.
All Falcon 9 launches on the SpaceX manifest are planned for Cape Canaveral SLC-40; the successful Falcon 9 maiden flight on June 4, 2010, also took place at Cape Canaveral SLC-40.

References

1. ^ Wayne, Leslie (2006-02-05). “A Bold Plan to Go Where Men Have Gone Before”. New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/05/business/yourmoney/05rocket.html. Retrieved 2009-10-08.
2. ^ SpaceX (2008-08-04). “SpaceX receives $20 million investment from Founder’s Fund”. Press release. http://spacex.com/press.php?page=47. Retrieved 2008-08-10.
3. ^ Foust, Jeff (14 November 2005). “Big plans for SpaceX”. The Space Review. http://www.thespacereview.com/article/497/1.
4. ^ SpaceX (July 10, 2008). “Diane Murphy joins SpaceX as Vice President of Marketing and Communications”. Press release. http://www.californiaspaceauthority.org/html/government_pages/pr080714-1.html.
5. ^ SpaceX (January 12, 2005). “Surrey Satellite Technology Limited sells stake to SpaceX”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=13.
6. ^ SpaceX (August 18, 2006). “SpaceX wins NASA COTS contract to demonstrate cargo delivery to Space Station with option for crew transport”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=25.
7. ^ SpaceX (23 December 2008). “NASA selects SpaceX’s Falcon 9 booster and Dragon spacecraft for cargo resupply services to the International Space Station”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20081223.
8. ^ SpaceX (2 May 2005). “SpaceX Awarded $100 Million Contract From U.S. Air Force for Falcon I”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=15.
9. ^ NASA (2008-04-22). “NASA Awards Launch Services Contract to SpaceX”. Press release. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/apr/HQ_C08023_KSC_launch_services.html. Retrieved 2008-04-22.
10. ^ SpaceX (2008-04-22). “NASA Awards Launch Services Contract to SpaceX”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=41. Retrieved 2008-04-24.
11. ^ SpaceX (2009-06-16). “Former astronaut Bowersox joins SpaceX as Vice President of Astronaut Safety and Mission Assurance”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20090618. Retrieved 2009-07-27.
12. ^ SpaceX (September 28, 2008). “SpaceX Successfully Launches Falcon 1 To Orbit”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=20080928. Retrieved 2008-09-28.
13. ^ Rowe, Aaron (July 14, 2009). “SpaceX Launch Successfully Delivers Satellite Into Orbit”. Wired Science. http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2009/07/spacexlaunch/. Retrieved 2009-09-14.
14. ^ a b c SpaceX.com (2005-09-08). “SpaceX announces the Falcon 9 fully reusable heavy lift launch vehicle”. Press release. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=18. Retrieved 2009-10-08.
15. ^ Goff, Jon (August 5, 2005). “Falcon IX”. Selenian Boondocks. http://selenianboondocks.blogspot.com/2005/08/falcon-ix.html.
16. ^ “Space Exploration Technologies Corporation — Company”. SpaceX. http://www.spacex.com/company.php#frequently_asked_questions. Retrieved 2009-10-08. “Falcon 9 Heavy will be capable of carrying up to 29,610 kg to LEO and up to 15,010 kg to GTO. Falcon 9 Heavy could have important implications for Mars exploration and even settlement.”
17. ^ “Falcon 9 Progress Update: 22 November 2008″. SpaceX. 2008-11-22. http://www.spacex.com/updates.php#Update082808.
18. ^ “Elon Musk — Senate Testimony, May 5, 2004″. SpaceX. 2004-05-04. http://www.spacex.com/press.php?page=10. Retrieved 2008-08-10.
19. ^ “Launches — Mission Set Database”. NASA GSFC. http://msdb.gsfc.nasa.gov/launches.php. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
20. ^ “NASA Mission Set Database”. NASA. http://msdb.gsfc.nasa.gov/MissionData.php?mission=Falcon-9%20ELV%20First%20Flight%20Demonstration. Retrieved 2010-06-03.
21. ^ “Long term SpaceX vehicle plans”. HobbySpace.com. July 7, 2009. http://www.hobbyspace.com/nucleus/index.php?itemid=13632. Retrieved 2009-07-13.
22. ^ Belfiore, Michael (January 18, 2005). “Race for Next Space Prize Ignites”. Wired.com. http://www.wired.com/news/space/0,2697,66308,00.html.
23. ^ Cowing, Keith (6 March 2006). “The SpaceX Dragon: America’s First Privately Financed Manned Orbital Spacecraft?”. SpaceRef.com. http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1095.
24. ^ “NASA selects crew, cargo launch partners”. Spaceflight Now. August 18, 2006. http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n0608/18cots/.
25. ^ NASA (August 18, 2006). “NASA Selects Crew and Cargo Transportation to Orbit Partners”. Press release. http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2006/aug/HQ_06295_COTS_phase_1.html.
26. ^ Boyle, Alan (August 18, 2006). “SpaceX, Rocketplane win spaceship contest”. MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14411983/.
27. ^ This Week in Space interview with Elon Musk. Spaceflight Now. January 24, 2010. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ifwFa5DtIps&feature=player_embedded.
28. ^ Elon Musk’s SpaceX presentation to the Augustine panel. YouTube. June, 2009. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O81Zq02eStg.
29. ^ “Updates Archive”. SpaceX. 2007-12-10. http://www.spacex.com/updates_archive.php?page=121007#Update121007. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
30. ^ “Space Exploration Technologies Corporation — Falcon 9″. SpaceX. 2009-06-18. http://www.spacex.com/falcon9.php#pricing_and_performance. Retrieved 2009-10-08.
31. ^ “SpaceX Falcon Data Sheet”. Space Launch Report. 5 July 2007. http://www.spacelaunchreport.com/falcon.html#config.
32. ^ “Monster Progress Update (Mostly Falcon 9)”. SpaceX. 17 August 2007. http://www.spacex.com/updates_archive.php?page=081707.
33. ^ “Falcon 1 Overview”. SpaceX. 28 September 2007. http://www.spacex.com/falcon1.php.
34. ^ “Falcon 9 Overview”. SpaceX. 28 September 2007. http://www.spacex.com/falcon9.php.
35. ^ “Falcon 9 Heavy Overview”. SpaceX. 28 September 2007. http://www.spacex.com/falcon9_heavy.php.

Following a Celtic (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (9 BC – c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian ruler Árpád, whose great-grandson Stephen I of Hungary was crowned with a crown sent from Rome by the pope in 1000. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years,[note 2] and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centers of the Western world. The Battle of Mohács resulted in partial Ottoman occupation, followed by an integration into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituting half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy.

A great power until the end of World War I, Hungary lost over 70% of its territory, along with one third of its population of Hungarian ethnicity,[4] under the Treaty of Trianon,[5] the terms of which have been considered excessively harsh by many in Hungary.[6] The kingdom was succeeded by a Communist era (1947–1989) during which Hungary gained widespread international attention regarding the Revolution of 1956 and the seminal move of opening its border with Austria in 1989, thus accelerating the collapse of the Eastern Bloc. The present form of government is a parliamentary republic (since 1989). Today, Hungary is a high-income economy,[7] and a regional leader regarding certain markers.[8][9][10][11]

Hungary is ranked 20th globally (out of 195 countries) on International Living’s Quality of Life index (2010)[12] and 6th in an environmental protection index by GW/CAN.[13] Until recently, it was also listed as one of the 15 most popular tourist destinations in the world.[14][15] The country is home to the largest thermal water cave system[16] and the second largest thermal lake in the world – Lake Hévíz, the largest lake in Central Europe – Lake Balaton and the largest natural grasslands in Europe, Hortobágy.

History

Before 895 AD
Hungarian raids in the 10th century. Most European nations were praying for mercy: “Sagittis hungarorum libera nos Domine” – “Lord save us from the arrows of Hungarians”.

From 9 BC to the end of the 4th century, Pannonia was part of the Roman Empire on a part of later Hungary’s area. In the final stages of the expansion of the Roman empire, the Carpathian Basin fell for a while into the sphere of the Mediterranean, yet Greco-Roman civilization, its town centers, paved roads and written sources were all part of the advances which the Migration of Peoples ended.

Among the first to arrive were the Huns, who built up a powerful empire under Attila the Hun. Attila was regarded as an ancestral ruler of the Hungarians, however, this claim is rejected today by most scholars (Read chronicles like Gesta Hungarorum and Tarihi Ungurus/Turkish/ and these and other chronicles write about Magyars being Huns/Scythians). After Hunnish rule faded away, the Germanic Ostrogoths and then the Lombards came to Pannonia, and the Gepids had a presence in the eastern part of the Carpathian Basin for about 100 years.

In the 560s the Avars founded the Avar Khaganate,[17] a state which maintained supremacy in the region for more than two centuries and had the military power to launch attacks against all its neighbours. The Avar Khaganate was weakened by constant wars and outside pressure and finally the Avars’ 250 year rule ended when the Khaganate was conquered by the Franks under Charlemagne in the West and the Bulgarians under Krum in the East. Neither of these two nor others were able to create a lasting state in the region, and in the late 9th century the land was inhabited only by a sparse population of Slavs.[18]

It was King Arnulf I of Bavaria who invited the Hungarians to occupy Svatopluk’s lands east of the Danube.[19] In 894, while Simeon I of Bulgaria attacked the Byzantine Empire, Svatopluk challenged Arnulf by invading Pannonia.[19] Both Arnulf and Leo VI the Wise sought help from the Hungarians who were well placed to attack the Bulgarians and the Moravians from the rear.[19] Arnulf maintained the alliance with the Hungarians until his death in 899.[19]

The freshly unified Magyars (Hungarians)[20] led by Árpád settled in the Carpathian Basin starting in 895.[18][21] According to linguists they are thought to have originated in an ancient Finno-Ugric population that originally inhabited the forested area between the Volga River and the Ural Mountains,[22] although the genetic relation of Hungarians to Finno-Ugric peoples is excluded. The force led by Árpád contained seven Magyar, one Szekely, one Kabar, and other smaller tribes.[18]

Medieval Hungary (895–1526)
Main articles: History of Hungary, Pannonian basin before Hungary, Hungarian prehistory, and Pannonia
Main articles: Árpád dynasty, Kingdom of Hungary in the Middle Ages, and History of the Székely people
The first Hungarian coin, by Duke Géza circa the end of 970s.

Hungary is one of the oldest countries in Europe, settled in 896, before France and Germany became separate entities, and before the unification of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Árpád was the Magyar leader whom sources name as the single leader who unified the Magyar tribes via the “Covenant of Blood” (Hungarian: vérszerz?dés) forged one nation, thereafter known as the Hungarian nation[23] and led the new nation to the Carpathian Basin in the 9th century.[23]

After an early seminomad Hungarian state, the Principality of Hungary was formed in this territory, the nation’s military power allowed the Hungarians to conduct successful fierce campaigns and raids from Constantinople as far as today’s Spain.[24] A later defeat at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 signaled an end to most campaigns on foreign territories. The ruling prince (Hungarian: fejedelem) Géza of the Árpád dynasty, who was the ruler of only some of the united territory, but the nominal overlord of all seven Magyar tribes, intended to integrate Hungary into Christian Western Europe.[25] and the first Roman Catholic bishopric was established under his reign.

Géza chose his first-born son (Vajk the later King Stephen I of Hungary) to be his successor. This was contrary to the then-dominant tradition of the succession of the eldest surviving member of the ruling family. (See: agnatic seniority) By ancestral right prince Koppány, – as the oldest member of the dynasty – should have claimed the throne, but the fight in the chief prince’s family started after Géza’s death, in 997.

Duke Koppány took up arms, and many people in Transdanubia joined him. The rebels represented the old faith and order, tribal independence and pagan belief. Stephen won a decisive victory over his uncle Koppány in a large scale battle at Veszprém, and had him executed, thus firming Christian fate and ensuring the survival and prosperity of Hungary.

Hungary in the 11th century

The Patrimonial Kingdom
Main articles: Stephen I of Hungary, Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary), and Doctrine of the Holy Crown
The Holy Crown of Hungary, the key symbol of Hungary

Hungary was recognized as a Catholic Apostolic Kingdom under Saint Stephen I, the son of Géza[26] and thus a descendant of Árpád. Applying to Pope Sylvester II, Stephen received the insignia of royalty (including the Holy Crown of Hungary, currently kept in the Hungarian Parliament) from the papacy. He was crowned in December 1000, in the capital, Esztergom. The papacy conferred on him the right to have the cross carried before him, with full administrative authority over bishoprics and churches.

By 1006, Stephen had consolidated his power, eliminating all rivals who either wanted to follow the old pagan traditions or wanted an alliance with the Eastern Christian Byzantine Empire. Then he started sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a western feudal state, it has been asserted that the Christianisation was forced.[27] Stephen established a network of 10 episcopal and 2 archiepiscopal sees, and ordered the building of monasteries, churches and cathedrals.

The country switched to using the Latin language and alphabet under Stephen, and until as late as 1844, Latin remained the official language of Hungary. Previously Hungarian had been written with the Old Hungarian script, a runic script. Stephen followed the Frankish administrative model: The country was divided into counties (Hungarian: megye), each under a royal official called an ispán or count (Latin: comes) — later f?ispán (lord lieutenant or prefect) (Latin: supremus comes). This official represented the king’s authority, administered its population, and collected the taxes that formed the national revenue. Each ispán maintained at his fortified headquarters (castrum or vár) an armed force of freemen.

What emerged was a strong kingdom[28] that withstood attacks from German kings and Emperors, and nomadic tribes following the Hungarians from the East, integrating some of the latter into the population (along with Germans invited to Transylvania and the northern part of the kingdom, especially after the 13th century Battle of Mohi), and conquering Croatia in 1091.[29][30][31]

After the Great Schism (The East-West Schism /formally in 1054/, between Western Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianity.) Hungary determined itself as the Easternmost bastion of Western civilization. The Orthodox powers regarded Hungary as the main obstacle in their desire to introduce Orthodoxy into the Western World. However every such Eastern effort has been halted at the gates of Hungary.[32]

Important members of the Árpád dynasty

Andrew II in the Holy Land (After he defeated Sultan of Egypt.

Golden Bull of 1222.

King Coloman (Kálmán), the “Book-lover” (1095–1116)

One of Coloman’s most famous laws was half a millennium ahead of its time: De strigis vero quae non sunt, nulla amplius quaestio fiat (As for witches, they really do not exist; no further investigations or trials are to be held).

Béla III (1172–1192)

Béla III was the most powerful and wealthiest member of the dynasty: Béla disposed of the equivalent of 23 tonnes of pure silver per year. This exceeded the income of the French king (estimated at 17 tonnes) and was double the receipts of the English Crown.[33] He forced back the Byzantine domain in the Balkan region.

Andrew II of Hungary (1205–1235)

He granted the Burzenland (in Transylvania) to the Teutonic Knights. In 1225, Andrew II expelled the Teutonic Knights from Transylvania, hence Teutonic Order had to transfer to the Baltic sea. In 1224, Andrew issued the Diploma Andreanum which unified and secured the special privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons. It is considered the first Autonomy law in the world.[34]

He led the Fifth Crusade to the Holy Land in 1217. He set up the largest royal army in the history of Crusades (20,000 knights and 12,000 castle-garrisons). The Golden Bull of 1222 was the first constitution in Continental Europe. It limited the king’s power. The Golden Bull — the Hungarian equivalent of England’s Magna Carta — to which every Hungarian king thereafter had to swear, had a twofold purpose: to reaffirm the rights of the lesser nobles of the old and new classes of royal servants (servientes regis) against both the crown and the magnates, and to defend the rights of the whole nation against the crown by restricting certain powers of the crown and legalizing refusal to obey its unlawful/unconstitutional commands (the ius resistendi). The lesser nobles also began to present Andrew with grievances, a practice that evolved into the institution of the parliament (parlamentum publicum). Hungary became the first country where the parliament had supremacy over the crown. The most important legal ideology and legislative guideline was the Doctrine of the Holy Crown.

Important points of the Doctrine: The sovereignty belongs to the nation (the Holy Crown). The members of the Holy Crown are the citizens of the Crown’s lands. None can reach full power in the kingdom. The nation shares political power with the ruler. “Politically minority opinions cannot rule over majority”.

King Béla’s III tomb

The Mongol attacks, consequences and reaction
Main article: Mongol invasion of Europe

In 1241–1242, the kingdom received a major blow with the Mongol (Tatar) Invasion: after the defeat of the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohi,[35] Béla IV of Hungary fled, and a large part of the population died[36] in the ensuing destruction leading later to the invitation of settlers, largely from Germany. Historians estimate that up to half of Hungary’s then population of 2,000,000 were victims of the Mongol invasion.[37] In the plains between 50 and 80% of the settlements were destroyed.[38] Only castles, strongly fortified cities and abbeys could withstand the assault.

During the Russian campaign, the Mongols drove some 40,000 Cumans, a nomadic tribe of pagan Kipchaks, west of the Carpathian Mountains.[39] There, the Cumans appealed to King Béla IV of Hungary for protection.[40] The Iranian Jassic people came to Hungary together with the Cumans after they were defeated by the Mongols. Cumans constituted perhaps up to 7-8% of the population of Hungary in the second half of the 13th century.[41] Over the centuries they were fully assimilated into the Hungarian population, and their language disappeared, but they preserved their identity and their regional autonomy until 1876.[42]

As a consequence, after the Mongols retreated, King Béla ordered the construction of hundreds of stone castles and fortifications, to defend against a possible second Mongol invasion. The Mongols returned to Hungary in 1286, but the new built stone-castle systems and new tactics (using a higher proportion of heavily armed knights) stopped them. The invading Mongol force was defeated near Pest by the royal army of Ladislaus IV of Hungary. As with later invasions, it was repelled handily, the Mongols losing much of their invading force.

These castles proved to be very important later in the long struggle with the Ottoman Empire. However the cost of building them indebted the Hungarian King to the major feudal landlords again, so the royal power reclaimed by Béla IV after his father Andrew II significantly weakened it. The countries of Balkan region and the territory of Russian states fell under Ottoman/Mongolian rule very rapidly, due to the lack of the network of stone/brick castles and fortresses in these countries.

Age of elected Kings

King Charles’ last battle against the oligarchy, Rozgony (1312).

Lands, countries kingdoms under Louis’ control

Count John Hunyadi – One of the greatest warlords in Hungarian history, Matthias Corvinus’s father

Árpád’s direct descendants in the male line ruled the country until 1301. During the reigns of the Árpád dynasty, the Kingdom of Hungary reached its greatest extent, yet royal power was weakened as the major landlords (the Barons) greatly increased their influence. The most powerful landlords started to use royal prerogatives (coinage, customs, their own independent diplomacy, declaration of wars against foreign monarchs).

After the destructive period of interregnum (1301–1308), the first Angevin king, Charles I of Hungary (reigned 1308–1342) – a descendant of the Árpád dynasty in the female line – successfully restored royal power, and defeated oligarch rivals, the so called “little kings”. His new fiscal, customs and monetary policies proved successful during his reign.

One of the primary sources of his power was the wealth derived from the gold mines of eastern and northern Hungary. Eventually production reached the remarkable figure of 3,000 lb. (1350 kg) of gold annually – one third of the total production of the world as then known, and five times as much as that of any other European state.[43][44] Charles also sealed an alliance with the Polish king Casimir. After Italy, Hungary was the first European country where the renaissance appeared.[45]

The second Hungarian king in the Angevin line, Louis the Great (reigned 1342–1382) extended his rule as far as the Adriatic Sea, and occupied the Kingdom of Naples several times. During his reign lived the most famous epic hero of Hungarian literature and warfare, the king’s Champion: Nicolas Toldi. Louis had become popular in Poland because of his campaign against the Tatars and pagan Lithuanians. Two successful wars (1357–1358, 1378–1381) against Venice annexed Dalmatia and Ragusa and more territories on the Adriatic Sea. Venice also had to raise the Angevin flag in St. Mark’s Square on holy days.

Some Balkan states (Vallachia, Moldova, Serbia, Bosnia) became his vassals. Louis I established a university in Pécs in 1367 (by papal accordance). The Ottoman Turks confronted the Balkan vassal states ever more often. In 1366 and 1377, Louis led successful campaigns against the Ottomans (Battle of Nicapoli in 1366). From the death of Casimir III of Poland in 1370, he was also king of Poland. He retained his strong influence in the political life of Italian Peninsula for the rest of his life.

King Louis died without a male heir, and after years of anarchy the country was stabilized only when Sigismund (reigned 1387–1437), a prince of the Luxembourg line, succeeded to the throne by marrying the daughter of Louis the Great, Queen Mary. It was not for entirely selfless reasons that one of the leagues of barons helped him to power: Sigismund had to pay for the support of the lords by transferring a sizeable part of the royal properties. For some years, the baron’s council governed the country in the name of the Holy Crown; the king was imprisoned for a short time. The restoration of the authority of the central administration took decades.

In 1404 Sigismund introduced the Placetum Regnum. According to this decree, Papal bulls and messages could not be pronounced in Hungary without the consent of the king. Sigismund summoned the Council of Constance (1414–1418) to abolish the Avignon Papacy and the Papal Schism of the Catholic Church, which was resolved by the election of a new pope. In 1433 he even became Holy Roman Emperor. During his long reign the Royal castle of Buda became probably the largest Gothic palace of the late Middle Ages. The first Hungarian Bible translation was completed in 1439. For a half year in 1437, there was an antifeudal and anticlerical peasant revolt in Transylvania which was strongly influenced by Hussite ideas. (See: Budai Nagy Antal Revolt)

From a small noble family in Transylvania, John Hunyadi grew to become one of the country’s most powerful lords, thanks to his outstanding capabilities as a mercenary commander. In 1446, the parliament elected the great general John Hunyadi governor (1446–1453), then regent (1453–1456). He was a successful crusader against the Ottoman Turks, one of his greatest victories being the Siege of Belgrade in 1456. Hunyadi defended the city against the onslaught of the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. During the siege, Pope Callixtus III ordered the bells of every European church to be rung every day at noon, as a call for believers to pray for the defenders of the city. However, in many countries, (like England and Spanish kingdoms), the news of the victory arrived before the order, and the ringing of the church bells at noon was transformed into a commemoration of the victory. The Popes didn’t withdraw the order, and Catholic (and the older Protestant) churches still ring the noon bell in the Christian world to this day.[46]

Matthias Corvinus

The last strong king was the Renaissance king Matthias Corvinus (king 1458–1490). Matthias was the son of John Hunyadi. András Hess set up a printing press in Buda in 1472, which was very unique at that time in Europe. This was the first time in the history of the Hungarian kingdom that a member of the nobility, without dynastic ancestry and relationship, mounted the royal throne. A true Renaissance prince, a successful military leader and administrator, an outstanding linguist, a learned astrologer, and an enlightened patron of the arts and learning.[47]

Although Matthias regularly convened the Diet and expanded the lesser nobles’ powers in the counties, he exercised absolute rule over Hungary by means of a huge secular bureaucracy. He set out to build a great empire, expanding southward and northwest, while he also implemented internal reforms. The serfs and common people considered him a just ruler because he protected them from excessive demands from and other abuses by the magnates.[48]

Like his father, Matthias desired to strengthen the Kingdom of Hungary to the point where it became the foremost regional power and overlord, strong enough to push back the Ottomans; to that end he deemed it necessary to conquer much of the Holy Roman Empire.[citation needed] In 1479, under the leadership of Pál Kinizsi, the Hungarian army destroyed the Ottoman and Wallachian troops at the Battle of Breadfield. Abroad he defeated the Polish and German imperial armies of Frederick at Breslau (Wroc?aw). Hungarian power was confirmed by the Treaty of Olomouc (1479).

His mercenary standing army, the Black Army of Hungary was an unusually large army for its time, and it conquered parts of Austria, Vienna (1485) and parts of Bohemia. The king died without a legal successor. His library, the Bibliotheca Corviniana, was Europe’s greatest collection of historical chronicles, philosophic and scientific works in the 15th century, and second only in size to the Vatican Library which mainly contained Bibles and religious material. His renaissance library is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[49]
Decline of Hungary (1490-1526)

By the early 16th century, the Ottoman Empire had become the second most populous state in the world; this enabled the creation of the largest armies of the era.

The Hungarian magnates, who did not want another heavy-handed king, procured the accession of Vladislaus II (reigned 1490–1516), king of Bohemia because of his notorious weakness: he was known as King Dobže, or Dobzse in Hungarian orthography (king “okay”) from his habit of accepting without question every petition and document laid before him.[47] Under his reign the central power began to experience severe financial difficulties, mostly because of the enlargement of feudal lands at his expense. The magnates also dismantled the national administration systems and bureaucracy throughout the country. The country’s defenses sagged as border guards and castle garrisons went unpaid, fortresses fell into disrepair, and initiatives to increase taxes to reinforce defenses were stifled.[50] Hungary’s international role declined, its political stability shaken, and social progress was deadlocked.

In 1514, the weakened old King Vladislaus II faced a major peasant rebellion led by György Dózsa, which was ruthlessly crushed by the nobles, led by János Szapolyai. The resulting degradation of order paved the way for Ottoman pre-eminence. In 1521, the strongest Hungarian fortress in the South, Nándorfehérvár (modern Belgrade) fell to the Turks. The strongest nobles were so busy oppressing the peasants and quarrelling with gentry class in the parliament, that they failed to heed the agonized calls of king Louis II against the Turks. The early appearance of protestantism further worsened internal relations in the anarchical country. In 1526, the Hungarian army was crushed at the Battle of Mohács by the Ottomans. The childless young king Louis II, and the leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori died on the battlefield.

Through the centuries Hungary kept its old constitution, which granted special freedoms or rights to the nobility, the free royal towns such as Buda, Kassa (Košice), Pozsony (Bratislava), and Kolozsvár (Cluj-Napoca) and groups such as the Jassic people and the Transylvanian Saxons.
Ottoman wars 1526–1699

Ottoman Hungary, Principality of Transylvania, Ottoman–Habsburg wars, Wesselényi conspiracy, Edict of Turda, and Battle of Saint Gotthard (1664)

After some 150 years of wars with the Hungarians and other states, the Ottomans conquered parts of Hungary, and continued their expansion until 1556. The Ottomans gained a decisive victory over the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács in 1526. The next decades were characterised by political chaos; the divided Hungarian nobility elected two kings simultaneously, ‘Szapolyai János’ (1526–1540) and Ferdinand Habsburg (1527–1540), whose feud for the throne further weakened the kingdom.

With the conquest of Buda in 1541 by the